
@misc{AmericanPetProductsAssociation.2021,
  title = {2021-2022 {{APPA National Pet Owners Survey}}},
  author = {{American Pet Products Association}},
  year = {2021},
  abstract = {Total U.S. Pet Industry Expenditures  Year                 Billions of dollars 2020                 \$103.6 Actual 2019                 \$97.1 2018                 \$90.5  (Data was announced at the 2021 State of the Industry presentation on 3/24/21)  Actual Sales within the U.S. Market in 2020 In 2020, \$103.6 billion was spent on our pets in the U.S.  Breakdown:                                            Pet Food \& Treats                                                                   \$42.0 billion  Supplies, Live Animals \& OTC Medicine                           \$22.1 billion Vet Care \& Product Sales                                                     \$31.4 billion Other Services                                                                         \$8.1 billion   (Other Services include boarding, grooming, insurance, training, pet sitting and walking and all services outside of veterinary care) Estimated 2021 Sales within the U.S. Market For 2021, it estimated that \$109.6 billion will be spent on our pets in the U.S. Estimated Breakdown:                                           Pet Food \& Treats                                                                   \$44.1 billion  Supplies, Live Animals \& OTC Medicine                           \$23.4 billion Vet Care \& Product Sales                                                     \$32.3 billion Other Services                                                                         \$9.7 billion      Data sources and notes  Pet Food \& Treats:  Source:  Nielsen Scan \textendash{} 52 Weeks ending 12/28/2020 for xAOC+C and Pet Retail. Ecommerce pet food sales data powered by Rakuten Intelligence. Pet food sales for 2020 in Vet clinics, Farm \& Feed, Direct-to-Consumer, Costco were estimated using industry/financial reports and any available data for either of these channels. Other pet food categories not tracked by Nielsen were obtained from Euromonitor data.   Pet Supplies Live Animals \& OTC Medicine:  Pet Supplies and OTC Meds are based on data provided by Euromonitor, Nielsen Scan, Rakutan Intelligence and Packaged Facts.  Live Animals includes fish, birds, small animals and reptile and is based on APPA estimates and data provided by leading retailers and industry suppliers.  Vet Care \& Product Sales:  Includes routine veterinary care, surgical procedures and sales of pharmaceuticals and other products through veterinary clinics and is based on data provided by AVMA and Packaged Facts.  Excludes food and treat sales.  Other Services:  Includes grooming, training, boarding, insurance, Pet sitting/walking and all services outside of Vet Care and is based on data provided by Packaged Facts as well as leading industry retailers.  All data was reviewed and validated by industry experts and leading pet retailers and manufacturers.   2021-2022 APPA National Pet Owners Survey Statistics: Pet Ownership \& Annual Expenses   According to the 2021-2022 APPA National Pet Owners Survey, 70\% of U.S. households own a pet, which equates to 90.5 millions homes. In 1988, the first year the survey was conducted, 56\% of U.S. households owned a pet. Breakdown of pet ownership in the U.S. according to the 2021-2022 APPA National Pet Owners Survey Number of U.S. Households that Own a Pet (millions) Bird 	9.9 Cat 	45.3 Dog 	69.0 Horse 	3.5 Freshwater Fish 	11.8 Saltwater Fish 	2.9 Reptile 	5.7 Small Animal 	6.2   Pet Ownership by Generation (\% of Current Pet Owners) Gen Z 	14\% Millennial 	32\% Gen X 	24\% Baby Boomer 	27\% Builder 	3\%   Average Amount Spent on Common Pet Categories in the Past 12 Months  The incredible variety of pet care categories makes it difficult to compare amounts spent across different pet species. The list below is included to give the reader an idea of the types of categories included in the Survey but is not exhaustive of all the expenses captured in the individual pet species report sections.   It reports an approximate dollar amount based on consumer recollection of their spending in the prior 12 months. As such, the dollar amounts should not be added to report total spending in the prior 12 months. According to the 2021-2022 APPA National Pet Owners Survey, some of the basic annual expenses for dog and cat owners in dollars include:                                                        Dogs     Cats     Surgical Vet Visits                   \$458     \$201 Routine Vet                               \$242     \$178       Food                                             \$287     \$254        Food Treats                                \$81       \$72 Kennel Boarding                      \$228     \$78  Vitamins                                      \$81       \$47 Grooming aids/brushes         \$47       \$31 Toys                                               \$56      \$41   **Note: APPA does not ask Survey Participants how much in total they spend on their dog or cats annually. The expenses listed above are not all inclusive and each category was asked separately of the survey participant. https://www.americanpetproducts.org/press\_industrytrends.asp},
  howpublished = {https://americanpetproducts.org/pubs\_survey.asp},
  annotation = {https://www.americanpetproducts.org/press\_industrytrends.asp}
}

@article{Amici.etal.2019,
  title = {The Ability to Recognize Dog Emotions Depends on the Cultural Milieu in Which We Grow Up},
  author = {Amici, Federica and Waterman, James and Kellermann, Christina Maria and Karimullah, Karimullah and Br{\"a}uer, Juliane},
  year = {2019},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Scientific Reports},
  volume = {9},
  number = {1},
  pages = {1--9},
  issn = {2045-2322},
  doi = {10.1038/s41598-019-52938-4},
  abstract = {Inter-specific emotion recognition is especially adaptive when species spend a long time in close association, like dogs and humans. Here, we comprehensively studied the human ability to recognize facial expressions associated with dog emotions (hereafter, emotions). Participants were presented with pictures of dogs, humans and chimpanzees, showing angry, fearful, happy, neutral and sad emotions, and had to assess which emotion was shown, and the context in which the picture had been taken. Participants were recruited among children and adults with different levels of general experience with dogs, resulting from different personal (i.e. dog ownership) and cultural experiences (i.e. growing up or being exposed to a cultural milieu in which dogs are highly valued and integrated in human lives). Our results showed that some dog emotions such as anger and happiness are recognized from early on, independently of experience. However, the ability to recognize dog emotions is mainly acquired through experience. In adults, the probability of recognizing dog emotions was higher for participants grown up in a cultural milieu with a positive attitude toward dogs, which may result in different passive exposure, interest or inclination toward this species.},
  copyright = {2019 The Author(s)},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Andraszewicz.etal.2015,
  title = {An Introduction to {{Bayesian}} Hypothesis Testing for Management Research},
  author = {Andraszewicz, Sandra and Scheibehenne, Benjamin and Rieskamp, J{\"o}rg and Grasman, Raoul and Verhagen, Josine and Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan},
  year = {2015},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Journal of Management},
  volume = {41},
  number = {2},
  pages = {521--543},
  issn = {0149-2063},
  doi = {10.1177/0149206314560412},
  abstract = {In management research, empirical data are often analyzed using p-value null hypothesis significance testing (pNHST). Here we outline the conceptual and practical advantages of an alternative analysis method: Bayesian hypothesis testing and model selection using the Bayes factor. In contrast to pNHST, Bayes factors allow researchers to quantify evidence in favor of the null hypothesis. Also, Bayes factors do not require adjustment for the intention with which the data were collected. The use of Bayes factors is demonstrated through an extended example for hierarchical regression based on the design of an experiment recently published in the Journal of Management. This example also highlights the fact that p values overestimate the evidence against the null hypothesis, misleading researchers into believing that their findings are more reliable than is warranted by the data.},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Bennett.Rohlf.2007,
  title = {Owner-Companion Dog Interactions: {{Relationships}} between Demographic Variables, Potentially Problematic Behaviours, Training Engagement and Shared Activities},
  shorttitle = {Owner-Companion Dog Interactions},
  author = {Bennett, Pauleen Charmayne and Rohlf, Vanessa Ilse},
  year = {2007},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Applied Animal Behaviour Science},
  volume = {102},
  number = {1},
  pages = {65--84},
  issn = {0168-1591},
  doi = {10.1016/j.applanim.2006.03.009},
  abstract = {Many companion dogs occupy a privileged position in our society, living closely with human caretakers who go to great lengths to provide for their needs and desires. Others fare less well, being abandoned or killed, many because they are believed to exhibit behaviour problems. The aim in this study was to investigate the frequency of potentially problematic behaviours experienced by a convenience sample of companion dog owners and to establish if the presence of these behaviours was associated with demographic variables, involvement in dog training activities and participation in other dog-human interactions. Potentially problematic behaviours were reported to occur by the 413 adult participants only infrequently, but fell into five factors; disobedience, unfriendliness/aggression, nervousness, anxiety/destructiveness and excitability. Each of these factors was associated with a number of owner and dog characteristics. Engagement in training activities was predictive of lower scores being obtained for many of the behaviours, as well as increased involvement in shared activities. Some of the behaviours, particularly the perceived friendliness of the dog, were also predictive of involvement in shared activities. This confirms that strategies designed to increase participation in dog training activities and promote canine sociability may have significant benefits for both companion dog owners and their dogs.},
  keywords = {Canine,Dog behaviour,Dog training,Human–animal bonding,Human–animal interaction}
}

@article{Beran.2018,
  title = {Replication and Pre-Registration in Comparative Psychology},
  author = {Beran, Michael},
  year = {2018},
  journal = {International Journal of Comparative Psychology},
  volume = {31},
  number = {0},
  issn = {0889-3675},
  abstract = {There is growing interest and pressure in the social sciences to find ways to address the so-called ``replication crisis'' in psychology. This includes increasing transparency and good practices in all areas of experimental research, and in particular to promote attempts at replication. Comparative psychology has a long history of efforts to replicate and extend previous research, but it is often difficult to do this when highly specialized methods or uncommon species are being studied. I propose that comparative researchers make greater use of pre-registration as a way to ensure good practices, and I outline some of the ways in which this can be accomplished.},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Beran/beran_2018_replication_and_pre-registration_in_comparative_psychology.pdf}
}

@book{Borenstein.etal.2009,
  title = {Introduction to {{Meta-Analysis}}},
  author = {Borenstein, Michael and Hedges, Larry V. and Higgins, Julian P. T. and Rothstein, Hannah R.},
  year = {2009},
  edition = {2nd ed.},
  publisher = {{John Wiley \& Sons}},
  address = {{Chichester, West Sussex, U.K. ;}},
  abstract = {This book provides a clear and thorough introduction to meta-analysis, the process of synthesizing data from a series of separate studies. Meta-analysis has become a critically important tool in fields as diverse as medicine, pharmacology, epidemiology, education, psychology, business, and ecology. Introduction to Meta-Analysis:Outlines the role of meta-analysis in the research process Shows how to compute effects sizes and treatment effects Explains the fixed-effect and random-effects models for synthesizing data Demonstrates how to assess and interpret variation in},
  isbn = {978-1-119-96437-7},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Electronic books,Meta-analysis},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Borenstein et al/borenstein_et_al_2009_introduction_to_meta-analysis.pdf}
}

@article{Bradshaw.Goodwin.1999,
  title = {Determination of Behavioural Traits of Pure-Bred Dogs Using Factor Analysis and Cluster Analysis; a Comparison of Studies in the {{USA}} and {{UK}}},
  author = {Bradshaw, J. W. S and Goodwin, D},
  year = {1999},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Research in Veterinary Science},
  volume = {66},
  number = {1},
  pages = {73--76},
  issn = {0034-5288},
  doi = {10.1053/rvsc.1998.0246},
  abstract = {The questionnaire survey of Hart and Hart (1985,Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association186, 1811\textendash 1815) ranked the 56 most popular breeds of dog in theUSAon 13 behavioural traits and is compared here with results of a similar survey conducted on the 49 most popular breeds in theUK. Of the 36 breeds in common between the studies, 24 were similar for the traits aggressivity, reactivity and ease of housetraining between the two countries. However, the characteristics of nine breeds (Airedale Terrier, Old English Sheepdog, Welsh Corgi, Irish Setter, Standard Poodle, Beagle, Samoyed, Boxer, Dalmatian) differed markedly between the two countries, and a further three (Chihuahua, Scottish Terrier, Standard Dachshund) showed smaller, but probably meaningful, shifts. These differences should be recognised when giving advice to prospective owners, and when treating unwanted behaviour in these breeds.},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Bradshaw et al/bradshaw_et_al_1999_determination_of_behavioural_traits_of_pure-bred_dogs_using_factor_analysis_and.pdf}
}

@article{Brady.etal.2018,
  title = {A Spatial Discounting Test to Assess Impulsivity in Dogs},
  author = {Brady, Karen and Hewison, Lynn and Wright, Hannah and Zulch, Helen and Cracknell, Nina and Mills, Daniel},
  year = {2018},
  month = may,
  journal = {Applied Animal Behaviour Science},
  volume = {202},
  pages = {77--84},
  issn = {0168-1591},
  doi = {10.1016/j.applanim.2018.01.003},
  abstract = {In domestic dog's trait impulsivity can be measured psychometrically using the Dog Impulsivity Assessment Scale (DIAS) and experimentally using a temporal discounting paradigm which requires substantial training. A Spatial Discounting Task (SDT) was developed as an alternative experimental method to assess impulsivity, and evaluated performance in adult (2\textendash 10 years) and younger (2\textendash 9 months) dogs. The test was modified for field use with fewer controls (Simplified Spatial Discounting Task (SDTs)). Convergent validity with the SDT and DIAS Overall Questionnaire Scores (OQS) and stability over time (4\textendash 6 weeks) in the two age groups was determined. 96\% of dogs recruited reached criterion for testing. A significant positive relationship was found between Maximum Distance Travelled (MDT) in the SDT and OQS in adult dogs (r\,=\,0.46, p\,=\,0.028), with good test-retest reliability evident for both (p\,{$<$}\,0.001). In young dogs, there was good test-retest reliability for OQS (p\,=\,0.023), but no significant relationship was found between OQS and MDT, test-retest reliability for MDT in young dogs was poor. In the SDTs, 100\% of dogs recruited met criterion for testing and there was a significant relationship between MDT and OQS (r\,=\,0.61, p\,=\,0.027). The SDT appears to be a useful method for measuring impulsivity in adult dogs with wide applicability.},
  keywords = {Delayed reward,Impulsivity,Spatial discounting,Temperament},
  file = {/home/jstevens/Zotero/storage/FUTPJ72Q/brady_et_al_2018_a_spatial_discounting_test_to_assess_impulsivity_in_dogs.pdf}
}

@article{Bray.etal.2014,
  title = {Context Specificity of Inhibitory Control in Dogs},
  author = {Bray, Emily E. and MacLean, Evan L. and Hare, Brian A.},
  year = {2014},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Animal Cognition},
  volume = {17},
  number = {1},
  pages = {15--31},
  issn = {1435-9448, 1435-9456},
  doi = {10.1007/s10071-013-0633-z},
  abstract = {Across three experiments, we explored whether a dog's capacity for inhibitory control is stable or variable across decision-making contexts. In the social task, dogs were first exposed to the reputations of a stingy experimenter that never shared food and a generous experimenter who always shared food. In subsequent test trials, dogs were required to avoid approaching the stingy experimenter when this individual offered (but withheld) a higher-value reward than the generous experimenter did. In the A-not-B task, dogs were required to inhibit searching for food in a previously rewarded location after witnessing the food being moved from this location to a novel hiding place. In the cylinder task, dogs were required to resist approaching visible food directly (because it was behind a transparent barrier), in favor of a detour reaching response. Overall, dogs exhibited inhibitory control in all three tasks. However, individual scores were not correlated between tasks, suggesting that context has a large effect on dogs' behavior. This result mirrors studies of humans, which have highlighted intra-individual variation in inhibitory control as a function of the decision-making context. Lastly, we observed a correlation between a subject's age and performance on the cylinder task, corroborating previous observations of age-related decline in dogs' executive function.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Behavioural Sciences,Canine,Cognition,Domestic dogs,evolutionary biology,Human Physiology,Inhibitory control,Zoology}
}

@article{Brucks.etal.2017a,
  title = {Measures of Dogs' Inhibitory Control Abilities Do Not Correlate across Tasks},
  author = {Brucks, D{\'e}sir{\'e}e and {Marshall-Pescini}, Sarah and Wallis, Lisa Jessica and Huber, Ludwig and Range, Friederike},
  year = {2017},
  journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  volume = {8},
  pages = {849},
  issn = {1664-1078},
  doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00849},
  abstract = {Inhibitory control, the ability to overcome prepotent but ineffective behaviors, has been studied extensively across species, revealing the involvement of this ability in many different aspects of life. While various different paradigms have been created in order to measure inhibitory control, only a limited number of studies have investigated whether such measurements indeed evaluate the same underlying mechanism, especially in non-human animals. In humans, inhibitory control is a complex construct composed of distinct behavioral processes rather than of a single unified measure. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the validity of inhibitory control paradigms in dogs. Sixty-seven dogs were tested in a battery consisting of frequently used inhibitory control tests. Additionally, dog owners were asked to complete an impulsivity questionnaire about their dog. No correlation of dogs' performance across tasks was found. In order to understand whether there are some underlying behavioral aspects explaining dogs' performance across tests, we performed principle component analyses. Results revealed that three components (persistency, compulsivity and decision speed) explained the variation across tasks. The questionnaire and dogs' individual characteristics (i.e. age and sex) provided only limited information for the derived components. Overall, results suggest that no unique measurement for inhibitory control exists in dogs, but tests rather measure different aspects of this ability. Considering the context-specificity of inhibitory control in dogs and most probably also in other non-human animals, extreme caution is needed when making conclusions about inhibitory control abilities based on a single test.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Delay of Gratification,Dogs,Inhibitory Control,Persistency,Test battery}
}

@article{Cokely.etal.2012,
  title = {Measuring Risk Literacy: {{The Berlin Numeracy Test}}},
  author = {Cokely, E. T. and Galesic, M and Schulz, E and Ghazal, S and {Garcia-Retamero}, R},
  year = {2012},
  journal = {Judgment and Decision Making},
  volume = {7},
  number = {1},
  pages = {25--47},
  abstract = {We introduce the Berlin Numeracy Test, a new psychometrically sound instrument that quickly assesses statistical numeracy and risk literacy. We present 21 studies (n=5336) showing robust psychometric discriminability across 15 countries (e.g., Germany, Pakistan, Japan, USA) and diverse samples (e.g., medical professionals, general populations, Mechanical Turk web panels). Analyses demonstrate desirable patterns of convergent validity (e.g., numeracy, general cognitive abilities), discriminant validity (e.g., personality, motivation), and criterion validity (e.g., numerical and non-numerical questions about risk). The Berlin Numeracy Test was found to be the strongest predictor of comprehension of everyday risks (e.g., evaluating claims about products and treatments; interpreting forecasts), doubling the predictive power of other numeracy instruments and accounting for unique variance beyond other cognitive tests (e.g., cognitive reflection, working memory, intelligence). The Berlin Numeracy Test typically takes about three minutes to complete and is available in multiple languages and formats, including a computer adaptive test that automatically scores and reports data to researchers (www.riskliteracy.org). The online forum also provides interactive content for public outreach and education, and offers a recommendation system for test format selection. Discussion centers on construct validity of numeracy for risk literacy, underlying cognitive mechanisms, and applications in adaptive decision support.}
}

@incollection{DeYoung.2011,
  title = {Impulsivity as a Personality Trait},
  booktitle = {Handbook of Self-Regulation: {{Research}}, Theory, and Applications, 2nd Ed},
  author = {DeYoung, Colin G.},
  editor = {Vohs, K D and Baumeister, R F},
  year = {2011},
  pages = {485--502},
  publisher = {{Guilford Press}},
  address = {{New York, NY, US}},
  abstract = {Impulsivity is one of the most frequently examined constructs in psychology, and rightly so. Perhaps nothing better characterizes the dilemmas of human existence than the difficulty of balancing long-term goals against immediate impulses. Following a discussion of definitions of impulsivity, this chapter focuses on impulsivity as a personality trait\textemdash that is, a dimension of relatively stable individual differences in the tendency to be impulsive, roughly normally distributed in the general population. After developing a working definition of impulsivity, the chapter considers methods of measuring impulsivity as a trait, then reviews research on different conceptions of impulsivity and the relation of impulsivity to broad taxonomies of personality, focusing primarily on the five-factor model, or the Big Five. Consideration is given to the psychological and biological mechanisms that underlie trait impulsivity in relation to a theory of the substrates of the Big Five and their higher-order factors, with the goal of developing hypotheses about how and why people differ in their predisposition toward impulsivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)},
  isbn = {978-1-60623-948-3},
  keywords = {Five Factor Personality Model,Impulsiveness,Individual Differences,Personality Measures,Personality Traits,Self-Control,Self-Regulation,Taxonomies}
}

@article{Diesel.etal.2010,
  title = {Survey of Veterinary Practice Policies and Opinions on Neutering Dogs},
  author = {Diesel, G. and Brodbelt, D. and Laurence, C.},
  year = {2010},
  journal = {Veterinary Record},
  volume = {166},
  number = {15},
  pages = {455--458},
  issn = {2042-7670},
  doi = {10.1136/vr.b4798},
  abstract = {A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 2008 to obtain information on the advice veterinary practices currently give to their clients and the opinions of veterinary surgeons regarding neutering of dogs. An additional survey of dog owners was conducted to obtain information on the neuter status of the general dog population in Great Britain. A significantly higher proportion of practices had a policy for the age of neutering bitches than for dogs. The average recommended age for neutering bitches was 6.5 months (95 per cent confidence interval [CI] 3.1 to 9.7 months) and for dogs it was 7.5 months (95 per cent CI 1.4 to 13.6 months). There was very little agreement between veterinary practices as to whether bitches should be allowed to have their first season before neutering, with 164 of 973 respondents (16.9 per cent) always recommending this, 198 (20.3 per cent) recommending it most of the time, 203 (20.9 per cent) sometimes, 203 (20.9 per cent) rarely and 201 (20.6 per cent) never recommending it. The owner study showed that 54 per cent of dogs (233 of 431) were neutered, with the North region having the lowest proportion of neutered dogs (11 of 25; 44.0 per cent).},
  langid = {english},
  annotation = {\_eprint: https://bvajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1136/vr.b4798},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Diesel et al/diesel_et_al_2010_survey_of_veterinary_practice_policies_and_opinions_on_neutering_dogs.pdf}
}

@article{Dwyer.etal.2006,
  title = {Development of the {{Monash Dog Owner Relationship Scale}} ({{MDORS}})},
  author = {Dwyer, Fleur and Bennett, Pauleen C. and Coleman, Grahame J.},
  year = {2006},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Anthrozo\"os},
  volume = {19},
  number = {3},
  pages = {243--256},
  issn = {0892-7936},
  doi = {10.2752/089279306785415592},
  abstract = {With increasing scientific and clinical attention being paid to the formation, nature and consequences of human\textendash companion animal relationships, there is a need to develop scales with which to assess such relationships in a rigorous, empirically valid manner. Accordingly, the aim in this study was to develop a psychometrically sound, multi-dimensional questionnaire with which to assess human\textendash companion dog relationships. A multi-step process involving over 1,000 participants resulted in the development of a scale with 28 items, the Monash Dog Owner Relationship Scale or MDORS. The MDORS has three sub-scales, Dog\textendash Owner Interaction, Perceived Emotional Closeness, and Perceived Costs, that appear to be relatively stable and interpretable across participant groups and that appear to represent important and diverse aspects of the human\textendash companion dog relationship. It is envisaged that the future use of this scale will allow researchers to significantly increase our understanding of human\textendash companion dog relationships by permitting direct comparisons across participant groups drawn from different demographic or cultural contexts. It may also permit clinicians to analyze relationships between dog owners and their dogs in more detail and depth than is possible using existing scales.},
  keywords = {canine,companion animal,dog,human-animal interaction,human-animal relationship,pet bonding scale}
}

@article{Evenden.1999a,
  title = {Varieties of Impulsivity},
  author = {Evenden, J L},
  year = {1999},
  journal = {Psychopharmacology},
  volume = {146},
  number = {4},
  pages = {348--361},
  doi = {10.1007/PL00005481},
  abstract = {The concept of impulsivity covers a wide range of "actions that are poorly conceived, prematurely expressed, unduly risky, or inappropriate to the situation and that often result in undesirable outcomes". As such it plays an important role in normal behaviour, as well as, in a pathological form, in many kinds of mental illness such as mania, personality disorders, substance abuse disorders and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Although evidence from psychological studies of human personality suggests that impulsivity may be made up of several independent factors, this has: not made a major impact on biological studies of impulsivity. This may be because there is little unanimity as to which these factors are. The present review summarises evidence for varieties of impulsivity from several different areas of research: human psychology, psychiatry and animal behaviour. Recently, a series of psychopharmacological studies has been carried out by the present author and colleagues using methods proposed to measure selectively different aspects of impulsivity. The results of these studies suggest that several neurochemical mechanisms can influence impulsivity, and that impulsive behaviour has no unique neurobiological basis. Consideration of impulsivity as the result of several different, independent factors which inter act to modulate behaviour may provide better insight into the pathology than current hypotheses based on serotonergic underactivity.},
  keywords = {ascending 5-hydroxytryptaminergic pathways; consecutive number schedule; reaction-time performance; interval bisection task; self-control paradigm; timing behavior; d-amphetamine; rats; lesions; attention,impulsivity; personality; serotonin; behaviour}
}

@article{Fadel.etal.2016,
  title = {Differences in Trait Impulsivity Indicate Diversification of Dog Breeds into Working and Show Lines},
  author = {Fadel, Fernanda Ruiz and Driscoll, Patricia and Pilot, Malgorzata and Wright, Hannah and Zulch, Helen and Mills, Daniel},
  year = {2016},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Scientific Reports},
  volume = {6},
  number = {1},
  pages = {22162},
  publisher = {{Nature Publishing Group}},
  issn = {2045-2322},
  doi = {10.1038/srep22162},
  abstract = {Impulsiveness describes the inability to inhibit behaviour in the presence of salient cues. Trait-level impulsivity exists on a continuum and individual differences can be adaptive in different contexts. While breed related differences in behavioural tendency in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) are well established, the phenomenon within lines of a breed which have been selected more recently is not well studied, although it may challenge the popular notion of breed-typical behaviour. We describe differences in impulsivity between and within two dog breeds with working and show lines selected for different levels of impulsivity: Border Collies (herding work) and Labrador Retrievers (gun work). Recent show line selection might have lessened differences in impulsivity between breeds. We tested this hypothesis on a dataset of 1161 individuals assessed using a validated psychometric tool (Dog Impulsivity Assessment Scale - DIAS). Collies were more impulsive on average, consistent with the original purpose of breed selection. Regarding line, working Collies differed from working Labradors, but show lines from the two breeds were not significantly different. Altered or relaxed artificial selection for behavioural traits when appearance rather than behaviour become the primary focus for breeders may reduce average differences in impulsivity between breeds in show lines.},
  copyright = {2016 The Author(s)},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Fagnani.etal.2016a,
  title = {Is Previous Experience Important for Inhibitory Control? {{A}} Comparison between Shelter and Pet Dogs in {{A-not-B}} and Cylinder Tasks},
  shorttitle = {Is Previous Experience Important for Inhibitory Control?},
  author = {Fagnani, J. and Barrera, G. and Carballo, F. and Bentosela, M.},
  year = {2016},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Animal Cognition},
  volume = {19},
  number = {6},
  pages = {1165--1172},
  issn = {1435-9456},
  doi = {10.1007/s10071-016-1024-z},
  abstract = {This study compares the performance of two groups of dogs with different levels of social interaction with humans, shelter and pet dogs, in two inhibitory control tasks. (1) In the A-not-B task, dogs were required to resist searching for food in a previously rewarded location, and (2) in the cylinder task, dogs were required to resist approaching visible food directly in favor of a detour reaching response. Our first aim was to evaluate the importance of learning and ontogeny in performing inhibitory tasks. Also, we assessed whether there is a correlation between the two tasks by comparing performance in the same subjects. Results showed significant differences between shelter and pet dogs in the A-not-B task, with poorer performance in shelter dogs. However, no differences were found in the cylinder task. The poorer performance of shelter dogs might be related to their infrequent interaction with humans, which reduces the chances to learn to inhibit certain behaviors. This result would highlight the importance of ontogeny in developing that ability. On the other hand, no correlations were found between the two tasks, which contributes information to the debate about the context specificity of inhibitory control in dogs.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {A-not-B task,Cylinder task,Inhibitory control,Learning,Shelter dogs}
}

@article{Fawcett.etal.2012,
  title = {When Is It Adaptive to Be Patient? {{A}} General Framework for Evaluating Delayed Rewards},
  author = {Fawcett, Tim W. and McNamara, John M. and Houston, Alasdair I.},
  year = {2012},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Behavioural Processes},
  volume = {89},
  number = {2},
  pages = {128--136},
  issn = {0376-6357},
  doi = {10.1016/j.beproc.2011.08.015},
  abstract = {The tendency of animals to seek instant gratification instead of waiting for greater long-term benefits has been described as impatient, impulsive or lacking in self-control. How can we explain the evolution of such seemingly irrational behaviour? Here we analyse optimal behaviour in a variety of simple choice situations involving delayed rewards. We show that preferences for more immediate rewards should depend on a variety of factors, including whether the choice is a one-off or is likely to be repeated, the information the animal has about the continuing availability of the rewards and the opportunity to gain rewards through alternative activities. In contrast to the common assertion that rational animals should devalue delayed rewards exponentially, we find that this pattern of discounting is optimal only under restricted circumstances. We predict preference reversal whenever waiting for delayed rewards entails loss of opportunities elsewhere, but the direction of this reversal depends on whether the animal will face the same choice repeatedly. Finally, we question the ecological relevance of standard laboratory tests for impulsive behaviour, arguing that animals rarely face situations analogous to the self-control paradigm in their natural environment. To understand the evolution of impulsiveness, a more promising strategy would be to identify decision rules that are adaptive in a realistic ecological setting, and examine how these rules determine patterns of behaviour in simultaneous choice tests.},
  keywords = {Delay discounting,Ecological rationality,Impulsiveness,intertemporal choice,Optimal foraging,Self-control}
}

@article{Francis.2012,
  title = {Publication Bias and the Failure of Replication in Experimental Psychology},
  author = {Francis, Gregory},
  year = {2012},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Psychonomic Bulletin \& Review},
  volume = {19},
  number = {6},
  pages = {975--991},
  issn = {1531-5320},
  doi = {10.3758/s13423-012-0322-y},
  abstract = {Replication of empirical findings plays a fundamental role in science. Among experimental psychologists, successful replication enhances belief in a finding, while a failure to replicate is often interpreted to mean that one of the experiments is flawed. This view is wrong. Because experimental psychology uses statistics, empirical findings should appear with predictable probabilities. In a misguided effort to demonstrate successful replication of empirical findings and avoid failures to replicate, experimental psychologists sometimes report too many positive results. Rather than strengthen confidence in an effect, too much successful replication actually indicates publication bias, which invalidates entire sets of experimental findings. Researchers cannot judge the validity of a set of biased experiments because the experiment set may consist entirely of type I errors. This article shows how an investigation of the effect sizes from reported experiments can test for publication bias by looking for too much successful replication. Simulated experiments demonstrate that the publication bias test is able to discriminate biased experiment sets from unbiased experiment sets, but it is conservative about reporting bias. The test is then applied to several studies of prominent phenomena that highlight how publication bias contaminates some findings in experimental psychology. Additional simulated experiments demonstrate that using Bayesian methods of data analysis can reduce (and in some cases, eliminate) the occurrence of publication bias. Such methods should be part of a systematic process to remove publication bias from experimental psychology and reinstate the important role of replication as a final arbiter of scientific findings.},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Frederick.2005,
  title = {Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making},
  author = {Frederick, Shane},
  year = {2005},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Journal of Economic Perspectives},
  volume = {19},
  number = {4},
  pages = {25--42},
  issn = {0895-3309},
  doi = {10.1257/089533005775196732},
  abstract = {This paper introduces a three-item "Cognitive Reflection Test" (CRT) as a simple measure of one type of cognitive ability\textemdash the ability or disposition to reflect on a question and resist reporting the first response that comes to mind. The author will show that CRT scores are predictive of the types of choices that feature prominently in tests of decision-making theories, like expected utility theory and prospect theory. Indeed, the relation is sometimes so strong that the preferences themselves effectively function as expressions of cognitive ability\textemdash an empirical fact begging for a theoretical explanation. The author examines the relation between CRT scores and two important decision-making characteristics: time preference and risk preference. The CRT scores are then compared with other measures of cognitive ability or cognitive "style." The CRT scores exhibit considerable difference between men and women and the article explores how this relates to sex differences in time and risk preferences. The final section addresses the interpretation of correlations between cognitive abilities and decision-making characteristics.},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Friese.Frankenbach.2020,
  title = {P-Hacking and Publication Bias Interact to Distort Meta-Analytic Effect Size Estimates},
  author = {Friese, Malte and Frankenbach, Julius},
  year = {2020},
  journal = {Psychological Methods},
  volume = {25},
  number = {4},
  pages = {456--471},
  publisher = {{American Psychological Association}},
  address = {{US}},
  issn = {1939-1463},
  doi = {10.1037/met0000246},
  abstract = {Science depends on trustworthy evidence. Thus, a biased scientific record is of questionable value because it impedes scientific progress, and the public receives advice on the basis of unreliable evidence that has the potential to have far-reaching detrimental consequences. Meta-analysis is a technique that can be used to summarize research evidence. However, meta-analytic effect size estimates may themselves be biased, threatening the validity and usefulness of meta-analyses to promote scientific progress. Here, we offer a large-scale simulation study to elucidate how p-hacking and publication bias distort meta-analytic effect size estimates under a broad array of circumstances that reflect the reality that exists across a variety of research areas. The results revealed that, first, very high levels of publication bias can severely distort the cumulative evidence. Second, p-hacking and publication bias interact: At relatively high and low levels of publication bias, p-hacking does comparatively little harm, but at medium levels of publication bias, p-hacking can considerably contribute to bias, especially when the true effects are very small or are approaching zero. Third, p-hacking can severely increase the rate of false positives. A key implication is that, in addition to preventing p-hacking, policies in research institutions, funding agencies, and scientific journals need to make the prevention of publication bias a top priority to ensure a trustworthy base of evidence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)},
  keywords = {Estimation,Experimenter Bias,Meta Analysis,Scientific Communication,Simulation,Size},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Friese et al/friese_et_al_2020_p-hacking_and_publication_bias_interact_to_distort_meta-analytic_effect_size.pdf}
}

@article{Gerencser.etal.2018,
  title = {Development and Validation of the {{Canine Reward Responsiveness Scale}}\textendash{{Examining}} Individual Differences in Reward Responsiveness of the Domestic Dog},
  author = {Gerencs{\'e}r, Linda and Bunford, N{\'o}ra and Moesta, Alexandra and Mikl{\'o}si, {\'A}d{\'a}m},
  year = {2018},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Scientific Reports},
  volume = {8},
  number = {1},
  pages = {4421},
  issn = {2045-2322},
  doi = {10.1038/s41598-018-22605-1},
  abstract = {Although there is ample data indicating that reward processing plays an important role in human psychopathologies and pharmaco- and psychotherapy treatment response, the corresponding animal-model research needs to be extended to models whose motivational and social dispositions are better generalizable than those of the traditional models. Accordingly, our aim was to develop and assess the reliability and validity of an owner-report rating scale of reward responsiveness in domestic dogs (N\,=\,2149) and then to examine individual differences in reward responsiveness. Responsiveness was categorisable by reward type (ball/toy and food) and exhibited individual variability manifesting in age- and breed-related differences. Rating scale scores were associated with behavioural observation of reward processing, indicating evidence of convergent validity. Ball/toy and food reward responsiveness were associated with owner-rated hyperactivity-impulsivity, inattention and with differences in training, indicating evidence of concurrent validity. Extreme (vs. average) reward responsiveness was also predicted by dogs' hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention, and extreme responsiveness was associated with increased likelihood of physical health and/or social problems. These findings are informative with regard to the dog as an animal model for various human behavioural and cognitive functions, and also for the dog in its own right as they are relevant to training and welfare.},
  copyright = {2018 The Author(s)},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Gosling.etal.2003,
  title = {A Very Brief Measure of the {{Big-Five}} Personality Domains},
  author = {Gosling, Samuel D and Rentfrow, Peter J and Swann, William B},
  year = {2003},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Journal of Research in Personality},
  volume = {37},
  number = {6},
  pages = {504--528},
  issn = {0092-6566},
  doi = {10.1016/S0092-6566(03)00046-1},
  abstract = {When time is limited, researchers may be faced with the choice of using an extremely brief measure of the Big-Five personality dimensions or using no measure at all. To meet the need for a very brief measure, 5 and 10-item inventories were developed and evaluated. Although somewhat inferior to standard multi-item instruments, the instruments reached adequate levels in terms of: (a) convergence with widely used Big-Five measures in self, observer, and peer reports, (b) test\textendash retest reliability, (c) patterns of predicted external correlates, and (d) convergence between self and observer ratings. On the basis of these tests, a 10-item measure of the Big-Five dimensions is offered for situations where very short measures are needed, personality is not the primary topic of interest, or researchers can tolerate the somewhat diminished psychometric properties associated with very brief measures.}
}

@article{Gronau.etal.2021,
  title = {A Primer on {{Bayesian}} Model-Averaged Meta-Analysis},
  author = {Gronau, Quentin F. and Heck, Daniel W. and Berkhout, Sophie W. and Haaf, Julia M. and Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan},
  year = {2021},
  month = jul,
  journal = {Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science},
  volume = {4},
  number = {3},
  pages = {25152459211031256},
  publisher = {{SAGE Publications Inc}},
  issn = {2515-2459},
  doi = {10.1177/25152459211031256},
  abstract = {Meta-analysis is the predominant approach for quantitatively synthesizing a set of studies. If the studies themselves are of high quality, meta-analysis can provide valuable insights into the current scientific state of knowledge about a particular phenomenon. In psychological science, the most common approach is to conduct frequentist meta-analysis. In this primer, we discuss an alternative method, Bayesian model-averaged meta-analysis. This procedure combines the results of four Bayesian meta-analysis models: (a) fixed-effect null hypothesis, (b) fixed-effect alternative hypothesis, (c) random-effects null hypothesis, and (d) random-effects alternative hypothesis. These models are combined according to their plausibilities given the observed data to address the two key questions ``Is the overall effect nonzero?'' and ``Is there between-study variability in effect size?'' Bayesian model-averaged meta-analysis therefore avoids the need to select either a fixed-effect or random-effects model and instead takes into account model uncertainty in a principled manner.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Bayes factor,evidence synthesis,hypothesis test,open materials,posterior probability},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Gronau et al/gronau_et_al_2021_a_primer_on_bayesian_model-averaged_meta-analysis.pdf}
}

@book{Harrer.etal.2021,
  title = {Doing {{Meta-Analysis}} in {{R}}: {{A Hands-On Guide}}},
  author = {Harrer, Mathias and Cuijpers, Pim and Furukawa, Toshi A. and Ebert, David D.},
  year = {2021},
  publisher = {{Chapman \& Hall/CRC Press}},
  address = {{Boca Raton, FL}},
  abstract = {This is a guide on how to conduct Meta-Analyses in R.},
  isbn = {978-0-367-61007-4},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Harvey.etal.2022,
  title = {Impact of Changes in Time Left Alone on Separation-Related Behaviour in {{UK}} Pet Dogs},
  author = {Harvey, Naomi D. and Christley, Robert M. and Giragosian, Kassandra and Mead, Rebecca and Murray, Jane K. and Samet, Lauren and Upjohn, Melissa M. and Casey, Rachel A.},
  year = {2022},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Animals},
  volume = {12},
  number = {4},
  pages = {482},
  publisher = {{Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute}},
  issn = {2076-2615},
  doi = {10.3390/ani12040482},
  abstract = {Separation-related behaviours (SRBs), including but not limited to vocalisation, pacing, destruction and toileting, occur in the absence of human company. As well as being problematic for the dogs' owners, such behaviours indicate that the dogs' emotional state is compromised. As part of the COVID-19 pandemic, time spent alone decreased considerably for many pet dogs, leading to concerns about the development of SRBs when dogs are left alone more again. The main aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that dogs whose time left alone decreased most (compared to a February 2020 pre-COVID baseline) would be at greatest risk of developing new signs of SRB when time left alone increased again. To achieve this aim, we utilised survey data gathered from dog owners between 4th May and 3rd July 2020, during the first COVID-19 `lockdown' period in the United Kingdom (UK), and a follow-up survey of the same dog-owner cohort, completed when restrictions had eased between 10th October and 2nd November 2020. Individual dogs fluctuated considerably in whether they showed signs of SRB or not across the study period (n = 1807). Overall, the prevalence of SRB in the population decreased from 22.1\% to 17.2\%, as did the time dogs were left alone for between February and October 2020. However, 9.9\% of dogs had developed new signs of SRB by the follow-up survey in October 2020, with dogs whose leaving hours decreased most during lockdown restrictions being at increased risk of developing SRBs. These findings have implications for our understanding of the etiology of SRB, by showing a link between changes in owner routine and SRB risk.},
  copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {clinical behaviour,COVID-19,dog,problem behaviour,risk factors,separation-anxiety,separation-related behaviour,SRB}
}

@article{Heirs.Graham.2021,
  title = {Canine Separation Anxiety: How First Referral Practices Can Help},
  shorttitle = {Canine Separation Anxiety},
  author = {Heirs, Morag and Graham, Heather},
  year = {2021},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Companion Animal},
  volume = {26},
  number = {8},
  pages = {170--174},
  publisher = {{Mark Allen Group}},
  issn = {2053-0889},
  doi = {10.12968/coan.2021.0030},
  abstract = {There are currently approximately 10.1 million pet dogs in the UK, equating to about 26\% of the UK adult population owning a dog. Early research indicates that dogs have played an essential role in helping their owners to cope throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. This article explores the potential impact of lockdown on the canine experience and the risk of developing separation-related behavioural problems, as well as how first referral veterinary practices can support their clients through this.},
  keywords = {canine,companion animal,COVID-19,pandemic,separation anxiety,separation-related behaviour problems,separation-related distress}
}

@article{Hejjas.etal.2007,
  title = {Association of Polymorphisms in the Dopamine {{D4}} Receptor Gene and the Activity-Impulsivity Endophenotype in Dogs},
  author = {Hejjas, K. and Vas, J. and Topal, J. and Szantai, E. and Ronai, Z. and Szekely, A. and Kubinyi, E. and Horvath, Z. and {Sasvari-Szekely}, M. and Miklosi, A.},
  year = {2007},
  journal = {Animal Genetics},
  volume = {38},
  number = {6},
  pages = {629--633},
  issn = {1365-2052},
  doi = {10.1111/j.1365-2052.2007.01657.x},
  abstract = {A variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) polymorphism in exon 3 of the human dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) has been associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Rodents possess no analogous repeat sequence, whereas a similar tandem repeat polymorphism of the DRD4 gene was identified in dogs, horses and chimpanzees. Here, we present a genetic association study of the DRD4 VNTR and the activity-impulsivity dimension of the recently validated dog-ADHD Rating Scale. To avoid false positives arising from population stratification, a single breed of dogs (German shepherd) was studied. Two DRD4 alleles (referred to as 2 and 3a) were detected in this breed, and genotype frequencies were in Hardy\textendash Weinberg equilibrium. For modelling distinct environmental conditions, `pet' and `police' German shepherds were characterized. Police German shepherds possessing at least one 3a allele showed significantly higher scores in the activity-impulsivity dimension of the dog-ADHD Rating Scale than dogs without this allele (P = 0.0180). This difference was not significant in pet German shepherds. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of an association between a candidate gene and a behaviour trait in dogs, and it reinforces the functional role of DRD4 exon 3 polymorphism.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {activity-impulsivity,dog,dopamine D4 receptor gene,genetic association,polymorphism},
  annotation = {\_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2052.2007.01657.x},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Hejjas et al/hejjas_et_al_2007_association_of_polymorphisms_in_the_dopamine_d4_receptor_gene_and_the.pdf}
}

@article{Hiby.etal.2004,
  title = {Dog Training Methods: Their Use, Effectiveness and Interaction with Behaviour and Welfare},
  shorttitle = {Dog Training Methods},
  author = {Hiby, EF and Rooney, NJ and Bradshaw, JWS},
  year = {2004},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Animal Welfare},
  volume = {13},
  number = {1},
  pages = {63--69},
  abstract = {Historically, pet dogs were trained using mainly negative reinforcement or punishment, but positive reinforcement using rewards has recently become more popular. The methods used may have different impacts on the dogs' welfare. We distributed a questionnaire to 364 dog owners in order to examine the relative effectiveness of different training methods and their effects upon a pet dog's behaviour. When asked how they trained their dog on seven basic tasks, 66\% reported using vocal punishment, 12\% used physical punishment, 60\% praise (social reward), 51\% food rewards and 11\% play. The owner's ratings for their dog's obedience during eight tasks correlated positively with the number of tasks which they trained using rewards (P{$<$}0.01), but not using punishment (P=0.5). When asked whether their dog exhibited any of 16 common problematic behaviours, the number of problems reported by the owners correlated with the number of tasks for which their dog was trained using punishment (P{$<$}0.001), but not using rewards (P=0.17). Exhibition of problematic behaviours may be indicative of compromised welfare, because such behaviours can be caused by\textemdash or result in\textemdash a state of anxiety and may lead to a dog being relinquished or abandoned. Because punishment was associated with an increased incidence of problematic behaviours, we conclude that it may represent a welfare concern without concurrent benefits in obedience. We suggest that positive training methods may be more useful to the pet-owning community.},
  keywords = {ANIMAL WELFARE,DOMESTIC DOG,HUMAN-ANIMAL INTERACTION,OBEDIENCE,PROBLEMATIC BEHAVIOUR,TRAINING METHODS}
}

@article{Hopper.etal.2015,
  title = {Captive Chimpanzee Foraging in a Social Setting: A Test of Problem Solving, Flexibility, and Spatial Discounting},
  shorttitle = {Captive Chimpanzee Foraging in a Social Setting},
  author = {Hopper, Lydia M. and Kurtycz, Laura M. and Ross, Stephen R. and Bonnie, Kristin E.},
  year = {2015},
  month = mar,
  journal = {PeerJ},
  volume = {3},
  pages = {e833},
  issn = {2167-8359},
  doi = {10.7717/peerj.833},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Houpt.etal.2007,
  title = {Proceedings of a Workshop to Identify Dog Welfare Issues in the {{US}}, {{Japan}}, {{Czech Republic}}, {{Spain}} and the {{UK}}},
  author = {Houpt, Katherine Albro and Goodwin, Deborah and Uchida, Yoshiko and Baranyiov{\'a}, Eva and Fatj{\'o}, Jaume and Kakuma, Yoshie},
  year = {2007},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Applied Animal Behaviour Science},
  series = {International {{Society}} for {{Applied Ethology Special Issue A Selection}} of {{Papers}} from the 39th {{International Congress}} of the {{International Society}} for {{Applied Ethology}} ({{ISAE}}), {{Tokyo}}, {{Japan}}, {{August}} 2005},
  volume = {106},
  number = {4},
  pages = {221--233},
  issn = {0168-1591},
  doi = {10.1016/j.applanim.2007.01.005},
  abstract = {The aims of this paper are first to review scientific and ethical considerations regarding the welfare of dogs in the US, UK, Czech Republic, Spain and Japan, as well as to examine research perspectives of people working within the field of applied ethology. As a guide, the Five Freedoms should be considered for dogs as with other species of animals [Brambell, F.W.R., 1965. Brambell, Report on the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Livestock Kept Under Intensive Husbandry Systems, HMSO, London]. With pet dogs the use of drugs or shock therapy, neutering, caging, debarking and euthanasia for behaviour problems are all controversial not only among the general public but also among specialists in behavioural therapy. Breeding systems, evaluation of aptitudes, socialisation, training methods, and retired dogs' lives are the major welfare concerns related to working dogs. Even within European countries, e.g. Spain, the Czech Republic, and the UK, there are different standards and attitudes towards dogs in each country. This suggests that scientific evidence and cultural consideration may be necessary to improving the welfare of companion animals. Different situations which exist between countries should be considered when seeking to establish international standards, however, these may also provide evidence for causes and inform possible modifications regarding canine behavioural issues. Sections contributed by authors from five countries discuss current issues and aim to produce a better understanding of local behaviour and welfare factors. It is concluded that there are still many welfare issues surrounding companion and working dogs internationally and further collaborative investigation is required in seeking to improve these.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Abandonment,Behavioural problems,Dog,Euthanasia,Neutering,Welfare},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Houpt et al/houpt_et_al_2007_proceedings_of_a_workshop_to_identify_dog_welfare_issues_in_the_us,_japan,.pdf}
}

@article{Hsu.Serpell.2003,
  title = {Development and Validation of a Questionnaire for Measuring Behavior and Temperament Traits in Pet Dogs},
  author = {Hsu, Yuying and Serpell, James A.},
  year = {2003},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association},
  volume = {223},
  number = {9},
  pages = {1293--1300},
  issn = {0003-1488},
  doi = {10.2460/javma.2003.223.1293},
  abstract = {Objective\textemdash To develop and validate a questionnaire to assess behavior and temperament traits of pet dogs.  Design\textemdash Cross-sectional survey of dog owners.  Animals\textemdash 1,851 dogs belonging to clients of a veterinary teaching hospital or members of national breed clubs and 203 dogs examined by canine behavior practitioners because of behavior problems.  Procedure\textemdash Owners were asked to complete a questionnaire consisting of 152 items eliciting information on how dogs responded to specific events and situations in their usual environment. Data from completed questionnaires were subjected to factor analysis, and the resulting factors were tested for reliability and validity.  Results\textemdash Factor analysis yielded 11 factors from 68 of the original questionnaire items that together accounted for 57\% of the common variance in questionnaire item scores. Reliability was acceptable for all but 1 of these factors. Behavior problems in 200 of the 203 dogs with behavior problems could be assigned to 7 diagnostic categories that matched 7 of the factors identified during factor analysis of questionnaire responses. Dogs assigned to particular diagnostic categories had significantly higher scores for corresponding questionnaire factors than did those assigned to unrelated diagnostic categories, indicating that the factors were valid .Validity of the remaining 4 factors could not be examined because of a lack of information on dogs with behavior problems related to these factors.  Conclusions and Clinical Relevance\textemdash Findings suggest that the resulting 68-item questionnaire is a reliable and valid method of assessing behavior and temperament traits in dogs. The questionnaire may be useful in screening dogs for behavior problems and in evaluating the clinical effects of various treatments for behavior problems. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;223: 1293\textendash 1300)},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Hsu et al/hsu_et_al_2003_development_and_validation_of_a_questionnaire_for_measuring_behavior_and.pdf}
}

@article{Konok.etal.2011,
  title = {The Behavior of the Domestic Dog ({{Canis}} Familiaris) during Separation from and Reunion with the Owner: {{A}} Questionnaire and an Experimental Study},
  shorttitle = {The Behavior of the Domestic Dog ({{Canis}} Familiaris) during Separation from and Reunion with the Owner},
  author = {Konok, Veronika and D{\'o}ka, Antal and Mikl{\'o}si, {\'A}d{\'a}m},
  year = {2011},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Applied Animal Behaviour Science},
  volume = {135},
  number = {4},
  pages = {300--308},
  issn = {0168-1591},
  doi = {10.1016/j.applanim.2011.10.011},
  abstract = {We have constructed a questionnaire to investigate the separation behavior in a sample of family dogs (Canis familiaris) (N=45) and in parallel we have observed dogs' separation-related behavior in a simple behavioral test (Separation and greeting test, S\&G). We recorded the dogs' behavior during the separation from and reunion (greeting) with the owner. We investigated whether owners' report about their dogs' separation behavior reflected the separation behavior under controlled testing conditions. Furthermore, we wanted to find out whether the duration of separation affected the behavior of dogs and whether there was some relationship between separation and greeting behavior. Dogs that were rated by their owner to be more ``anxious'' during separation and ``happier'' at reunion, showed more activity and stress-related behavior during separation, and more affection toward the owner during greeting. Dogs with owner-reported separation-related disorder (SRD) showed more stress-related behavior, they spent less time near the owner's chair during separation, and were more active during greeting than dogs without SRD. The two groups of dogs did not differ in affectionate behavior shown toward the owner. Non-affected dogs' activity decreased with increasing separation duration, but dogs with SRD did not show this change in their separation behavior. Our results show that owners' have a realistic view on their dogs' separation behavior. In addition, dogs with SRD may not be ``hyper-attached'' to their owners because they do not show more affection during greeting. Moreover, dogs with SRD do not show preference for the owners' objects left behind and they cannot be easily calmed by the returning owner. Our questionnaire and the Separation and greeting test could be used for screening dogs with suspected separation-related behavior problems.},
  keywords = {Dog,Greeting behavior,Separation behavior,Separation-related disorder},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Konok et al/konok_et_al_2011_the_behavior_of_the_domestic_dog_(canis_familiaris)_during_separation_from_and.docx}
}

@article{Kralik.Sampson.2012,
  title = {A Fruit in Hand Is Worth Many More in the Bush: Steep Spatial Discounting by Free-Ranging Rhesus Macaques ({{Macaca}} Mulatta)},
  shorttitle = {A Fruit in Hand Is Worth Many More in the Bush},
  author = {Kralik, Jerald D. and Sampson, William W.L.},
  year = {2012},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Behavioural Processes},
  volume = {89},
  number = {3},
  pages = {197--202},
  issn = {0376-6357},
  doi = {10.1016/j.beproc.2011.09.010},
  abstract = {Decision making is one of the principal cognitive processes underlying goal-directed behaviour and thus there is justifiably strong interest in modeling it. However, many of these models have yet to be tested outside of the laboratory. At the same time, field work would benefit from the use of experimental methods developed in the laboratory to determine the causal relationships between environmental variables and behaviour. We therefore adapted a laboratory-derived experimental paradigm to test decision making in the wild. The experiment used an indifference-point procedure to determine the influence of both the amount and distance of food on choice behaviour. Free-ranging rhesus monkeys were given the choice between a smaller amount of food at a closer distance and a larger amount farther away. In four conditions, we held the closer amount constant across trials and varied the farther amount to determine the point at which the monkeys were indifferent to the choice alternatives. For example, in condition one, we used one piece of food at the closer location, and determined how many pieces would be equivalent in the farther location. Four different closer amounts were tested to obtain an indifference point curve, with the indifference amounts at the farther location plotted against the closer amounts. The slope of the obtained linear indifference curve was surprisingly high, suggesting that rhesus monkeys significantly discount food that is farther away. Possible reasons for this steep spatial discounting are discussed.},
  keywords = {Choice,Decision making,Reward,Rhesus monkeys,Spatial discounting},
  file = {/home/jstevens/Zotero/storage/H9PJC8MP/Kralik and Sampson - 2012 - A fruit in hand is worth many more in the bush St.html}
}

@article{Kubinyi.etal.2012,
  title = {Polymorphism in the Tyrosine Hydroxylase ({{TH}}) Gene Is Associated with Activity-Impulsivity in {{German Shepherd Dogs}}},
  author = {Kubinyi, Enik{\H o} and Vas, Judit and Hejjas, Krisztina and Ronai, Zsolt and Br{\'u}der, Ildik{\'o} and Turcs{\'a}n, Borb{\'a}la and {Sasvari-Szekely}, Maria and Mikl{\'o}si, {\'A}d{\'a}m},
  year = {2012},
  month = jan,
  journal = {PLOS ONE},
  volume = {7},
  number = {1},
  pages = {e30271},
  publisher = {{Public Library of Science}},
  issn = {1932-6203},
  doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0030271},
  abstract = {We investigated the association between repeat polymorphism in intron 4 of the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene and two personality traits, activity-impulsivity and inattention, in German Shepherd Dogs. The behaviour of 104 dogs was characterized by two instruments: (1) the previously validated Dog-Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Rating Scale (Dog-ADHD RS) filled in by the dog owners and (2) the newly developed Activity-impulsivity Behavioural Scale (AIBS) containing four subtests, scored by the experimenters. Internal consistency, inter-observer reliability, test-retest reliability and convergent validity were demonstrated for AIBS. Dogs possessing at least one short allele were proved to be more active-impulsive by both instruments, compared to dogs carrying two copies of the long allele (activity-impulsivity scale of Dog-ADHD RS: p = 0.007; AIBS: p = 0.023). The results have some potential to support human studies; however, further research should reveal the molecular function of the TH gene variants, and look for the effect in more breeds.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Alleles,Animal behavior,Animal sexual behavior,Dogs,Introns,Pets and companion animals,Tyrosine,Variant genotypes},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Kubinyi et al/kubinyi_et_al_2012_polymorphism_in_the_tyrosine_hydroxylase_(th)_gene_is_associated_with.pdf}
}

@techreport{Lakens.2021,
  title = {Sample Size Justification},
  author = {Lakens, Daniel},
  year = {2021},
  month = jan,
  institution = {{PsyArXiv}},
  doi = {10.31234/osf.io/9d3yf},
  abstract = {An important step when designing a study is to justify the sample size that will be collected. The key aim of a sample size justification is to explain how the collected data is expected to provide valuable information given the inferential goals of the researcher. In this overview article six approaches are discussed to justify the sample size in a quantitative empirical study: 1) collecting data from (an)almost) the entire population, 2) choosing a sample size based on resource constraints, 3) performing an a-priori power analysis, 4) planning for a desired accuracy, 5) using heuristics, or 6) explicitly acknowledging the absence of a justification. An important question to consider when justifying sample sizes is which effect sizes are deemed interesting, and the extent to which the data that is collected informs inferences about these effect sizes. Depending on the sample size justification chosen, researchers could consider 1) what the smallest effect size of interest is, 2) which minimal effect size will be statistically significant, 3) which effect sizes they expect (and what they base these expectations on), 4) which effect sizes would be rejected based on a confidence interval around the effect size, 5) which ranges of effects a study has sufficient power to detect based on a sensitivity power analysis, and 6) which effect sizes are plausible in a specific research area. Researchers can use the guidelines presented in this article to improve their sample size justification, and hopefully, align the informational value of a study with their inferential goals.},
  keywords = {Experimental Design and Sample Surveys,power analysis,Quantitative Methods,sample size justification,Social and Behavioral Sciences,study design,value of information},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Lakens/lakens_2021_sample_size_justification.pdf}
}

@article{Lakens.2022,
  title = {Sample Size Justification},
  author = {Lakens, Dani{\"e}l},
  year = {2022},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Collabra: Psychology},
  volume = {8},
  number = {1},
  pages = {33267},
  issn = {2474-7394},
  doi = {10.1525/collabra.33267},
  abstract = {An important step when designing an empirical study is to justify the sample size that will be collected. The key aim of a sample size justification for such studies is to explain how the collected data is expected to provide valuable information given the inferential goals of the researcher. In this overview article six approaches are discussed to justify the sample size in a quantitative empirical study: 1) collecting data from (almost) the entire population, 2) choosing a sample size based on resource constraints, 3) performing an a-priori power analysis, 4) planning for a desired accuracy, 5) using heuristics, or 6) explicitly acknowledging the absence of a justification. An important question to consider when justifying sample sizes is which effect sizes are deemed interesting, and the extent to which the data that is collected informs inferences about these effect sizes. Depending on the sample size justification chosen, researchers could consider 1) what the smallest effect size of interest is, 2) which minimal effect size will be statistically significant, 3) which effect sizes they expect (and what they base these expectations on), 4) which effect sizes would be rejected based on a confidence interval around the effect size, 5) which ranges of effects a study has sufficient power to detect based on a sensitivity power analysis, and 6) which effect sizes are expected in a specific research area. Researchers can use the guidelines presented in this article, for example by using the interactive form in the accompanying online Shiny app, to improve their sample size justification, and hopefully, align the informational value of a study with their inferential goals.},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Lakens/lakens_2022_sample_size_justification.pdf}
}

@article{Lakestani.etal.2011,
  title = {Attitudes of Children and Adults to Dogs in {{Italy}}, {{Spain}}, and the {{United Kingdom}}},
  author = {Lakestani, Nelly and Donaldson, Morag L. and Verga, Marina and Waran, Natalie},
  year = {2011},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Journal of Veterinary Behavior},
  volume = {6},
  number = {2},
  pages = {121--129},
  issn = {1558-7878},
  doi = {10.1016/j.jveb.2010.11.002},
  abstract = {The aim of this study was to create and carry out a preliminary assessment of an attitude toward dogs scale, for preschool children and adults, in different European countries. Attitudes to animals may differ between different cultures; however, differences in attitudes to pets between European countries have not yet been investigated. Because exchange of information between the European countries is increasing, investigating differences in cultures is important for creating an effective European dog bite prevention program. Two short questionnaires were created, one to measure children's attitudes and another to measure adults' attitudes to dogs. These were administered to 107 nursery school children (mean age = 4.5 years) and 120 University students (mean age = 21.3 years) in Milan, Barcelona, and Edinburgh. Reliability testing of the questionnaire yielded a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.77 for the children's questionnaire and of 0.73 for the adults' questionnaire, suggesting that the questionnaires reliably measure attitudes to dogs. Children who owned dogs were found to have a more positive attitude to dogs than children who did not own dogs (U = 1347, P {$<$} 0.001). Similarly, adults who owned dogs had a more positive attitude to dogs than those who did not own dogs (U = 4027.5, P {$<$} 0.001). No significant differences in attitudes to dogs were found between the different countries and genders. Surprisingly, adults who had been bitten by dogs had a significantly more positive attitude than those who had not been bitten in the past (U = 770.5, P {$<$} 0.05). These results suggest that it is possible to use a questionnaire to measure attitudes of very young children to dogs and, because no differences were found between the different countries, it should be possible to use a single dog bite prevention program for Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom, rather than having to modify it to suit different cultures. In addition, the attitudes to dogs' questionnaire may be used in various other contexts such as to assess the effectiveness in changing attitudes of a welfare education program on dogs.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {attitude scale,children,cross-cultural,dog bite prevention,dogs}
}

@article{LeBel.etal.2019,
  title = {A Brief Guide to Evaluate Replications},
  author = {LeBel, Etienne Philippe and Vanpaemel, Wolf and Cheung, Irene and Campbell, Lorne},
  year = {2019},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Meta-Psychology},
  volume = {3},
  pages = {MP.2018.843},
  issn = {2003-2714},
  doi = {10.15626/MP.2018.843},
  abstract = {The importance of replication is becoming increasingly appreciated, however, considerably less consensus exists about how to evaluate the design and results of replications. We make concrete recommendations on how to evaluate replications with more nuance than what is typically done currently in the literature. We highlight six study characteristics that are crucial for evaluating replications: replication method similarity, replication differences, investigator independence, method/data transparency, analytic result reproducibility, and auxiliary hypotheses' plausibility evidence. We also recommend a more nuanced approach to statistically interpret replication results at the individual-study and meta-analytic levels, and propose clearer language to communicate replication results.},
  copyright = {Copyright (c) 2019 Etienne Philippe LeBel, Wolf Vanpaemel, Irene Cheung, Lorne Campbell},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {transparency; reproducibility; direct replication; replicability; evaluating replications}
}

@article{Lit.etal.2010,
  title = {Owner Reports of Attention, Activity, and Impulsivity in Dogs: A Replication Study},
  shorttitle = {Owner Reports of Attention, Activity, and Impulsivity in Dogs},
  author = {Lit, Lisa and Schweitzer, Julie B. and Iosif, Ana-Maria and Oberbauer, Anita M.},
  year = {2010},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Behavioral and Brain Functions},
  volume = {6},
  number = {1},
  pages = {1},
  issn = {1744-9081},
  doi = {10.1186/1744-9081-6-1},
  abstract = {When developing behaviour measurement tools that use third party assessments, such as parent report, it is important to demonstrate reliability of resulting scales through replication using novel cohorts. The domestic dog has been suggested as a model to investigate normal variation in attention, hyperactivity, and impulsive behaviours impaired in Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD). The human ADHD Rating Scale, modified for dogs and using owner-directed surveys, was applied in a European sample. We asked whether findings would be replicated utilizing an Internet survey in a novel sample, where unassisted survey completion, participant attitudes and breeds might affect previous findings.}
}

@article{Loken.Gelman.2017,
  title = {Measurement Error and the Replication Crisis},
  author = {Loken, Eric and Gelman, Andrew},
  year = {2017},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Science},
  volume = {355},
  number = {6325},
  pages = {584--585},
  publisher = {{American Association for the Advancement of Science}},
  doi = {10.1126/science.aal3618}
}

@article{Makel.etal.2012,
  title = {Replications in Psychology Research: How Often Do They Really Occur?},
  author = {Makel, Matthew C. and Plucker, Jonathan A. and Hegarty, Boyd},
  year = {2012},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Perspectives on Psychological Science},
  volume = {7},
  number = {6},
  pages = {537--542},
  issn = {1745-6916},
  doi = {10.1177/1745691612460688},
  abstract = {Recent controversies in psychology have spurred conversations about the nature and quality of psychological research. One topic receiving substantial attention is the role of replication in psychological science. Using the complete publication history of the 100 psychology journals with the highest 5-year impact factors, the current article provides an overview of replications in psychological research since 1900. This investigation revealed that roughly 1.6\% of all psychology publications used the term replication in text. A more thorough analysis of 500 randomly selected articles revealed that only 68\% of articles using the term replication were actual replications, resulting in an overall replication rate of 1.07\%. Contrary to previous findings in other fields, this study found that the majority of replications in psychology journals reported similar findings to their original studies (i.e., they were successful replications). However, replications were significantly less likely to be successful when there was no overlap in authorship between the original and replicating articles. Moreover, despite numerous systemic biases, the rate at which replications are being published has increased in recent decades.}
}

@article{Martin.Clarke.2017,
  title = {Are Psychology Journals Anti-Replication? {{A}} Snapshot of Editorial Practices},
  shorttitle = {Are Psychology Journals Anti-Replication?},
  author = {Martin, G. N. and Clarke, Richard M.},
  year = {2017},
  journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  volume = {8},
  pages = {523},
  issn = {1664-1078},
  doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00523},
  abstract = {Recent research in psychology has highlighted a number of replication problems in the discipline, with publication bias \textendash{} the preference for publishing original and positive results, and a resistance to publishing negative results and replications- identified as one reason for replication failure. However, little empirical research exists to demonstrate that journals explicitly refuse to publish replications. We reviewed the instructions to authors and the published aims of 1151 psychology journals and examined whether they indicated that replications were permitted and accepted. We also examined whether journal practices differed across branches of the discipline, and whether editorial practices differed between low and high impact journals. Thirty three journals (3\%) stated in their aims or instructions to authors that they accepted replications. There was no difference between high and low impact journals. The implications of these findings for psychology are discussed.},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Martin et al/martin_et_al_2017_are_psychology_journals_anti-replication.pdf}
}

@article{Maxwell.etal.2015,
  title = {Is Psychology Suffering from a Replication Crisis? {{What}} Does ``Failure to Replicate'' Really Mean?},
  shorttitle = {Is Psychology Suffering from a Replication Crisis?},
  author = {Maxwell, Scott E. and Lau, Michael Y. and Howard, George S.},
  year = {2015},
  journal = {American Psychologist},
  volume = {70},
  number = {6},
  pages = {487--498},
  publisher = {{American Psychological Association}},
  address = {{US}},
  issn = {1935-990X},
  doi = {10.1037/a0039400},
  abstract = {Psychology has recently been viewed as facing a replication crisis because efforts to replicate past study findings frequently do not show the same result. Often, the first study showed a statistically significant result but the replication does not. Questions then arise about whether the first study results were false positives, and whether the replication study correctly indicates that there is truly no effect after all. This article suggests these so-called failures to replicate may not be failures at all, but rather are the result of low statistical power in single replication studies, and the result of failure to appreciate the need for multiple replications in order to have enough power to identify true effects. We provide examples of these power problems and suggest some solutions using Bayesian statistics and meta-analysis. Although the need for multiple replication studies may frustrate those who would prefer quick answers to psychology's alleged crisis, the large sample sizes typically needed to provide firm evidence will almost always require concerted efforts from multiple investigators. As a result, it remains to be seen how many of the recently claimed failures to replicate will be supported or instead may turn out to be artifacts of inadequate sample sizes and single study replications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)},
  keywords = {Experimental Replication,Failure,Statistical Power,Statistical Probability}
}

@article{McNeish.2018,
  title = {Thanks Coefficient Alpha, We'll Take It from Here},
  author = {McNeish, Daniel},
  year = {2018},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Psychological Methods},
  volume = {23},
  number = {3},
  pages = {412--433},
  issn = {1939-1463},
  doi = {10.1037/met0000144},
  abstract = {Empirical studies in psychology commonly report Cronbach's alpha as a measure of internal consistency reliability despite the fact that many methodological studies have shown that Cronbach's alpha is riddled with problems stemming from unrealistic assumptions. In many circumstances, violating these assumptions yields estimates of reliability that are too small, making measures look less reliable than they actually are. Although methodological critiques of Cronbach's alpha are being cited with increasing frequency in empirical studies, in this tutorial we discuss how the trend is not necessarily improving methodology used in the literature. That is, many studies continue to use Cronbach's alpha without regard for its assumptions or merely cite methodological articles advising against its use to rationalize unfavorable Cronbach's alpha estimates. This tutorial first provides evidence that recommendations against Cronbach's alpha have not appreciably changed how empirical studies report reliability. Then, we summarize the drawbacks of Cronbach's alpha conceptually without relying on mathematical or simulation-based arguments so that these arguments are accessible to a broad audience. We continue by discussing several alternative measures that make less rigid assumptions which provide justifiably higher estimates of reliability compared to Cronbach's alpha. We conclude with empirical examples to illustrate advantages of alternative measures of reliability including omega total, Revelle's omega total, the greatest lower bound, and Coefficient H. A detailed software appendix is also provided to help researchers implement alternative methods. (PsycINFO Database Record},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {28557467},
  keywords = {Data Interpretation; Statistical,Humans,Psychometrics,Reproducibility of Results}
}

@article{Mongillo.etal.2019,
  title = {Development of a Spatial Discount Task to Measure Impulsive Choices in Dogs},
  author = {Mongillo, Paolo and Scandurra, Anna and Eatherington, Carla Jade and D'Aniello, Biagio and Marinelli, Lieta},
  year = {2019},
  month = jul,
  journal = {Animals},
  volume = {9},
  number = {7},
  pages = {469},
  doi = {10.3390/ani9070469},
  abstract = {Impulsive choices reflect an individual\&rsquo;s tendency to prefer a smaller immediate reward over a larger delayed one. Here, we have developed a behavioural test which can be easily applied to assess impulsive choices in dogs. Dogs were trained to associate one of two equidistant locations with a larger food amount when a smaller amount was presented in the other location, then the smaller amount was placed systematically closer to the dog. Choices of the smaller amount, as a function of distance, were considered a measure of the dog\&rsquo;s tendency to make impulsive choices. All dogs (N = 48) passed the learning phase and completed the entire assessment in under 1 h. Choice of the smaller food amount increased as this was placed closer to the dog. Choices were independent from food motivation, past training, and speed of learning the training phase; supporting the specificity of the procedure. Females showed a higher probability of making impulsive choices, in agreement with analogue sex differences found in human and rodent studies, and supporting the external validity of our assessment. Overall, the findings support the practical applicability and represent a first indication of the validity of this method, making it suitable for investigations into impulsivity in dogs.},
  copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {behavioral test,dog,impulsivity,learning,sex differences,validation},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Mongillo et al/mongillo_et_al_2019_development_of_a_spatial_discount_task_to_measure_impulsive_choices_in_dogs2.pdf}
}

@article{Muhlhoff.etal.2011,
  title = {Spatial Discounting of Food and Social Rewards in Guppies ({{Poecilia}} Reticulata)},
  author = {M{\"u}hlhoff, N and Stevens, Jeffrey R and Reader, S M},
  year = {2011},
  journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  volume = {2},
  pages = {68},
  doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00068},
  abstract = {In temporal discounting, animals trade off the time to obtain a reward versus the quality of a reward, choosing between a smaller reward available sooner and a larger reward available later. Similar discounting can apply over space, when animals choose between smaller and closer versus larger and more distant rewards. Most studies of temporal and spatial discounting use food as the reward, and we do not know if animals trade off other preferred stimuli in similar ways.  Here, we offered female guppies (\textbackslash emph\{Poecilia reticulata\}) a spatial discounting task in which we measured preferences for a larger reward as the distance to this reward increased relative to a closer but smaller reward. We varied whether the reward type was food items or conspecific shoaling partners to test whether the fish discounted reward types differently. Before beginning the discounting tasks, we conducted procedures to ensure the food and shoalmate stimuli were equally valued. In the discounting task, subjects switched their preferences from the larger to the smaller reward as the distance to the larger reward increased, but this did not differ across the two reward types. An analysis of travel times, however, suggests that the fish did treat the two rewards differently: they swam faster to the food rewards than to shoaling partners.  Therefore, our results suggest that the fish showed similar spatial discounting across food rewards and shoaling partners, but this pattern did not hold when accounting for travel times. More reward types should be tested to investigate the domain specificity of discounting.},
  copyright = {All rights reserved}
}

@article{Papale.etal.2012,
  title = {Interactions between Deliberation and Delay-Discounting in Rats},
  author = {Papale, Andrew E. and Stott, Jeffrey J. and Powell, Nathaniel J. and Regier, Paul S. and Redish, A. David},
  year = {2012},
  month = may,
  journal = {Cognitive, Affective, \& Behavioral Neuroscience},
  volume = {12},
  number = {3},
  pages = {513--526},
  issn = {1530-7026, 1531-135X},
  doi = {10.3758/s13415-012-0097-7},
  abstract = {When faced with decisions, rats sometimes pause and look back and forth between possible alternatives, a phenomenon termed vicarious trial and error (VTE). When it was first observed in the 1930s, VTE was theorized to be a mechanism for exploration. Later theories suggested that VTE aided the resolution of sensory or neuroeconomic conflict. In contrast, recent neurophysiological data suggest that VTE reflects a dynamic search and evaluation process. These theories make unique predictions about the timing of VTE on behavioral tasks. We tested these theories of VTE on a T-maze with return rails, where rats were given a choice between a smaller reward available after one delay or a larger reward available after an adjustable delay. Rats showed three clear phases of behavior on this task: investigation, characterized by discovery of task parameters; titration, characterized by iterative adjustment of the delay to a preferred interval; and exploitation, characterized by alternation to hold the delay at the preferred interval. We found that VTE events occurred during adjustment laps more often than during alternation laps. Results were incompatible with theories of VTE as an exploratory behavior, as reflecting sensory conflict, or as a simple neuroeconomic valuation process. Instead, our results were most consistent with VTE as reflecting a search process during deliberative decision making. This pattern of VTE that we observed is reminiscent of current navigational theories proposing a transition from a deliberative to a habitual decision-making mechanism.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Cognitive psychology,Decision-making,Delay-discounting,impulsivity,Neurosciences,Reinforcement learning,Vicarious trial and error,VTE}
}

@misc{PetFoodManufacturersAssociation.2021,
  title = {Pet {{Population}} 2021},
  author = {{Pet Food Manufacturers' Association}},
  year = {2021},
  abstract = {PFMA releases latest Pet Population Data: 3.2m UK homes have a pandemic pet with 38\% admitting it's just like having a new baby},
  howpublished = {https://www.pfma.org.uk/pet-population-2021},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Revelle.Zinbarg.2008,
  title = {Coefficients Alpha, Beta, Omega, and the Glb: {{Comments}} on {{Sijtsma}}},
  shorttitle = {Coefficients {{Alpha}}, {{Beta}}, {{Omega}}, and the Glb},
  author = {Revelle, William and Zinbarg, Richard E.},
  year = {2008},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Psychometrika},
  volume = {74},
  number = {1},
  pages = {145--154},
  issn = {1860-0980},
  doi = {10.1007/s11336-008-9102-z},
  abstract = {There are three fundamental problems in Sijtsma (Psychometrika, 2008): (1) contrary to the name, the glb is not the greatest lower bound of reliability but rather is systematically less than {$\omega$}t(McDonald, Test theory: A unified treatment, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, 1999), (2) we agree with Sijtsma that when considering how well a test measures one concept, {$\alpha$} is not appropriate, but recommend {$\omega$}trather than the glb, and (3) the end user needs procedures that are readily available in open source software.},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Revelle et al/revelle_et_al_2008_coefficients_alpha,_beta,_omega,_and_the_glb_-_comments_on_sijtsma.pdf}
}

@article{Reynolds.etal.2006,
  title = {Dimensions of Impulsive Behavior: Personality and Behavioral Measures},
  shorttitle = {Dimensions of Impulsive Behavior},
  author = {Reynolds, B and Ortengren, Amanda and Richards, Jerry B. and {de Wit}, Harriet},
  year = {2006},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Personality and Individual Differences},
  volume = {40},
  number = {2},
  pages = {305--315},
  issn = {0191-8869},
  doi = {10.1016/j.paid.2005.03.024},
  abstract = {Impulsivity as a behavioral construct encompasses a wide range of what are often considered maladaptive behaviors. Impulsivity has been assessed using a variety of measures, including both self-report personality questionnaires and behavioral tasks, and each of these measures has been further subdivided into separate components which are thought to represent different underlying processes. However, few studies have employed both personality measures and behavioral tasks, and so the relations among these measures are not well understood. In one analysis we examined correlations between three widely used personality measures (i.e., BIS-11, I7, and MPQ) and four laboratory-task measures of impulsive behavior (behavioral inhibition (2), delay discounting, and risk taking) in 70 healthy adult volunteers. The correlations among the various self-report measures were high, but self-reports were not correlated with behavioral-task measures. In a second analysis we performed a principal-components analysis using data from the four behavioral tasks for 99 participants. Two components emerged, labeled ``impulsive disinhibition'' (Stop Task and Go/No-Go task) and ``impulsive decision-making'' (Delay-Discounting task and Balloon Analog Risk Task). Taken collectively, these analyses support other recent findings indicating that self-report and behavioral tasks probably measure different constructs, and suggest that even among the behavioral measures, different tasks measure different, perhaps unrelated, components of impulsive behavior.},
  keywords = {Correlation,Delay discounting,Human,impulsivity,Laboratory measures,Principal component,Self-report measures},
  file = {/home/jstevens/Zotero/storage/J9DTGMM6/S0191886905002588.html}
}

@article{Riemer.etal.2014,
  title = {Impulsive for Life? {{The}} Nature of Long-Term Impulsivity in Domestic Dogs},
  shorttitle = {Impulsive for Life?},
  author = {Riemer, Stefanie and Mills, Daniel S. and Wright, Hannah},
  year = {2014},
  month = may,
  journal = {Animal Cognition},
  volume = {17},
  number = {3},
  pages = {815--819},
  issn = {1435-9456},
  doi = {10.1007/s10071-013-0701-4},
  abstract = {Individual differences in impulsivity occur at a cognitive and/or behavioural level and are associated with differing life outcomes. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence to support the long-term stability of these characteristics in non-human animals. This study reports on the stability of convergent measures of impulsivity in domestic dogs assessed more than 6 years apart. Measures were (1) owner assessment by means of a questionnaire, the validated `Dog Impulsivity Assessment Scale' (DIAS) and (2) dogs' performance in a delayed reward choice test. Dogs had 15-min free access to two food dispensers, one dispensing a piece of food immediately, the other dispensing three pieces after a delay, which increased by 1 s every other time the dogs sampled it. Maximum delay reached in this task reflects decision-making, or cognitive impulsivity, whereas the rate of extra presses on the delayed reward device during the delay can be considered as a measure of motor or behavioural impulsivity. DIAS scores were strongly and significantly correlated across years. The maximum delay reached in the behaviour test was also highly stable, whereas paw-pressing rate was uncorrelated between the years. These results demonstrate that cognitive but not motor impulsivity is highly consistent over time in dogs.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Delayed reward choice,Dogs Canis familiaris,Impulsivity,Personality,Stability,Test–retest reliability}
}

@article{Rouder.2014,
  title = {Optional Stopping: {{No}} Problem for {{Bayesians}}},
  shorttitle = {Optional Stopping},
  author = {Rouder, Jeffrey N.},
  year = {2014},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Psychonomic Bulletin \& Review},
  volume = {21},
  number = {2},
  pages = {301--308},
  issn = {1069-9384, 1531-5320},
  doi = {10.3758/s13423-014-0595-4},
  abstract = {Optional stopping refers to the practice of peeking at data and then, based on the results, deciding whether or not to continue an experiment. In the context of ordinary significance-testing analysis, optional stopping is discouraged, because it necessarily leads to increased type I error rates over nominal values. This article addresses whether optional stopping is problematic for Bayesian inference with Bayes factors. Statisticians who developed Bayesian methods thought not, but this wisdom has been challenged by recent simulation results of Yu, Sprenger, Thomas, and Dougherty (2013) and Sanborn and Hills (2013). In this article, I show through simulation that the interpretation of Bayesian quantities does not depend on the stopping rule. Researchers using Bayesian methods may employ optional stopping in their own research and may provide Bayesian analysis of secondary data regardless of the employed stopping rule. I emphasize here the proper interpretation of Bayesian quantities as measures of subjective belief on theoretical positions, the difference between frequentist and Bayesian interpretations, and the difficulty of using frequentist intuition to conceptualize the Bayesian approach.},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Schonbrodt.etal.2017,
  title = {Sequential Hypothesis Testing with {{Bayes}} Factors: {{Efficiently}} Testing Mean Differences},
  shorttitle = {Sequential Hypothesis Testing with {{Bayes}} Factors},
  author = {Sch{\"o}nbrodt, Felix D. and Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan and Zehetleitner, Michael and Perugini, Marco},
  year = {2017},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Psychological Methods},
  series = {Bayesian {{Data Analysis}} - {{Part I}}},
  volume = {22},
  number = {2},
  pages = {322--339},
  issn = {1082-989X},
  doi = {10.1037/met0000061},
  abstract = {Unplanned optional stopping rules have been criticized for inflating Type I error rates under the null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) paradigm. Despite these criticisms, this research practice is not uncommon, probably because it appeals to researcher's intuition to collect more data to push an indecisive result into a decisive region. In this contribution, we investigate the properties of a procedure for Bayesian hypothesis testing that allows optional stopping with unlimited multiple testing, even after each participant. In this procedure, which we call Sequential Bayes Factors (SBFs), Bayes factors are computed until an a priori defined level of evidence is reached. This allows flexible sampling plans and is not dependent upon correct effect size guesses in an a priori power analysis. We investigated the long-term rate of misleading evidence, the average expected sample sizes, and the biasedness of effect size estimates when an SBF design is applied to a test of mean differences between 2 groups. Compared with optimal NHST, the SBF design typically needs 50\% to 70\% smaller samples to reach a conclusion about the presence of an effect, while having the same or lower long-term rate of wrong inference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved)},
  keywords = {Bayes factor,efficiency,hypothesis testing,Hypothesis Testing,Mean,Null Hypothesis Testing,optional stopping,sequential designs,Statistical Probability,Type I Errors}
}

@article{Schonbrodt.Perugini.2013,
  title = {At What Sample Size Do Correlations Stabilize?},
  author = {Sch{\"o}nbrodt, Felix D. and Perugini, Marco},
  year = {2013},
  month = oct,
  journal = {Journal of Research in Personality},
  volume = {47},
  number = {5},
  pages = {609--612},
  issn = {0092-6566},
  doi = {10.1016/j.jrp.2013.05.009},
  abstract = {Sample correlations converge to the population value with increasing sample size, but the estimates are often inaccurate in small samples. In this report we use Monte-Carlo simulations to determine the critical sample size from which on the magnitude of a correlation can be expected to be stable. The necessary sample size to achieve stable estimates for correlations depends on the effect size, the width of the corridor of stability (i.e., a corridor around the true value where deviations are tolerated), and the requested confidence that the trajectory does not leave this corridor any more. Results indicate that in typical scenarios the sample size should approach 250 for stable estimates.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Accuracy,Correlation,Sample size,Simulation}
}

@article{Serpell.2004,
  title = {Factors Influencing Human Attitudes to Animals and Their Welfare},
  author = {Serpell, J. A.},
  year = {2004},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Animal Welfare},
  volume = {13},
  number = {S1},
  pages = {145--151},
  abstract = {This paper reviews the literature on human attitudes to animals, and postulates the existence of two primary motivational determinants of attitudes labelled 'affect' and 'utility'. It also proposes that the relative strengths of these key attitude dimensions are affected by various modifying variables including the specific attributes of the animal, the individual characteristics and experience of the person evaluating the animal, and a range of cultural factors. The role of science as a cultural modifier of human attitudes to animals is also discussed.},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Serpell/serpell_2004_factors_influencing_human_attitudes_to_animals_and_their_welfare.pdf}
}

@article{Simonsohn.etal.2014a,
  title = {P-Curve and Effect Size: {{Correcting}} for Publication Bias Using Only Significant Results},
  shorttitle = {P-Curve and Effect Size},
  author = {Simonsohn, Uri and Nelson, Leif D. and Simmons, Joseph P.},
  year = {2014},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Perspectives on Psychological Science},
  volume = {9},
  number = {6},
  pages = {666--681},
  publisher = {{SAGE Publications Inc}},
  issn = {1745-6916},
  doi = {10.1177/1745691614553988},
  abstract = {Journals tend to publish only statistically significant evidence, creating a scientific record that markedly overstates the size of effects. We provide a new tool that corrects for this bias without requiring access to nonsignificant results. It capitalizes on the fact that the distribution of significant p values, p-curve, is a function of the true underlying effect. Researchers armed only with sample sizes and test results of the published findings can correct for publication bias. We validate the technique with simulations and by reanalyzing data from the Many-Labs Replication project. We demonstrate that p-curve can arrive at conclusions opposite that of existing tools by reanalyzing the meta-analysis of the ``choice overload'' literature.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {p-curve,p-hacking,publication bias},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Simonsohn et al/simonsohn_et_al_2014_p-curve_and_effect_size.pdf}
}

@article{Stanley.Spence.2014,
  title = {Expectations for Replications: {{Are}} Yours Realistic?},
  shorttitle = {Expectations for Replications},
  author = {Stanley, David J. and Spence, Jeffrey R.},
  year = {2014},
  month = may,
  journal = {Perspectives on Psychological Science},
  volume = {9},
  number = {3},
  pages = {305--318},
  publisher = {{SAGE Publications Inc}},
  issn = {1745-6916},
  doi = {10.1177/1745691614528518},
  abstract = {Failures to replicate published psychological research findings have contributed to a ``crisis of confidence.'' Several reasons for these failures have been proposed, the most notable being questionable research practices and data fraud. We examine replication from a different perspective and illustrate that current intuitive expectations for replication are unreasonable. We used computer simulations to create thousands of ideal replications, with the same participants, wherein the only difference across replications was random measurement error. In the first set of simulations, study results differed substantially across replications as a result of measurement error alone. This raises questions about how researchers should interpret failed replication attempts, given the large impact that even modest amounts of measurement error can have on observed associations. In the second set of simulations, we illustrated the difficulties that researchers face when trying to interpret and replicate a published finding. We also assessed the relative importance of both sampling error and measurement error in producing variability in replications. Conventionally, replication attempts are viewed through the lens of verifying or falsifying published findings. We suggest that this is a flawed perspective and that researchers should adjust their expectations concerning replications and shift to a meta-analytic mind-set.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {individual differences,meta-analysis,methodology,reliability,replication,scientific},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Stanley et al/stanley_et_al_2014_expectations_for_replications.pdf}
}

@article{Stevens.2017b,
  title = {Replicability and Reproducibility in Comparative Psychology},
  author = {Stevens, Jeffrey R},
  year = {2017},
  journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},
  volume = {8},
  pages = {862},
  issn = {1664-1078},
  doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00862},
  abstract = {Replicability and Reproducibility in Comparative Psychology},
  copyright = {All rights reserved},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {animal research,comparative psychology,Pre-registration,replication,Reproducible Research}
}

@incollection{Stevens.2017c,
  title = {The Many Faces of Impulsivity},
  booktitle = {Impulsivity: {{How Time}} and {{Risk Influence Decision Making}}},
  author = {Stevens, Jeffrey R},
  editor = {Stevens, Jeffrey R.},
  year = {2017},
  series = {Nebraska {{Symposium}} on {{Motivation}}},
  pages = {1--6},
  publisher = {{Springer International Publishing}},
  doi = {10.1007/978-3-319-51721-6_1},
  abstract = {Impulsivity is a multifaceted concept that captures an inability to wait, a preference for risky outcomes, a tendency to act without forethought, an insensitivity to consequences, and/or an inability to inhibit inappropriate behaviors. Because it touches on so many different aspects of behavior, impulsivity connects to a number of other concepts including patience, self-control, delay of gratification, intertemporal choice, discounting, risky choice, risk taking, inhibitory control, and sensation seeking. Therefore, researchers have created a taxonomy that carves up the concept into different types of impulsivity. A primary distinction divides impulsivity into impulsive choice (or decision making) and impulsive action (or disinhibition) based on both behavioral correlates across tasks and neural mechanisms. Due to the many different varieties of impulsivity, this concept is of relevance to a large number of fields, including psychology, economics, biology, neuroscience, anthropology, nutrition, finance, and environmental sciences. The current volume reflects the scope of impulsivity by including contributors from a wide range of fields who work across levels of analysis, species, and timescales to understand the many faces of impulsivity.},
  copyright = {All rights reserved},
  isbn = {978-3-319-51721-6},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Impulsive Choice,Large Reward,Neural Circuitry,Risk Preference,Risky Choice},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Stevens/stevens_2017_the_many_faces_of_impulsivity2.pdf}
}

@article{Stevens.etal.2005b,
  title = {Will Travel for Food: Spatial Discounting in Two {{New World}} Primates},
  author = {Stevens, Jeffrey R and Rosati, A G and Ross, Kathryn R and Hauser, M D},
  year = {2005},
  journal = {Current Biology},
  volume = {15},
  number = {20},
  pages = {1855--1860},
  doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2005.09.016},
  abstract = {Nonhuman animals steeply discount the future, showing a preference for small, immediate over large, delayed rewards [15]. Currently unclear is whether discounting functions depend on context. Here, we examine the effects of spatial context on discounting in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) and common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus), species known to differ in temporal discounting [5]. We presented subjects with a choice between small, nearby rewards and large, distant rewards. Tamarins traveled farther for the large reward than marmosets, attending to the ratio of reward differences rather than their absolute values. This species difference contrasts with performance on a temporal task in which marmosets waited longer than tamarins for the large reward. These comparative data indicate that context influences choice behavior, with the strongest effect seen in marmosets who discounted more steeply over space than over time. These findings parallel details of each speciesﾒ feeding ecology. Tamarins range over large distances and feed primarily on insects, which requires using quick, impulsive action. Marmosets range over shorter distances than tamarins and feed primarily on tree exudates, a clumped resource that requires patience to wait for sap to exude [69]. These results show that discounting functions are context specific, shaped by a history of ecological pressures.},
  copyright = {All rights reserved},
  file = {/home/jstevens/Desktop/active_sync/zotero-library/Stevens et al/stevens_et_al_2005_will_travel_for_food_-_spatial_discounting_in_two_new_world_primates2.pdf;/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Stevens et al/stevens_et_al_2005_will_travel_for_food_-_spatial_discounting_in_two_new_world_primates.pdf}
}

@incollection{Stevens.Stephens.2010,
  title = {The Adaptive Nature of Impulsivity},
  booktitle = {Impulsivity: {{The Behavioral}} and {{Neurological Science}} of {{Discounting}}},
  author = {Stevens, Jeffrey R and Stephens, David W},
  editor = {Madden, Gregory J and Bickel, Warren K},
  year = {2010},
  pages = {361--387},
  publisher = {{American Psychological Association}},
  address = {{Washington, DC}},
  copyright = {All rights reserved},
  isbn = {978-1-4338-0477-9},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Stevens et al/stevens_et_al_2010_the_adaptive_nature_of_impulsivity.pdf}
}

@article{Trevejo.etal.2011,
  title = {Epidemiology of Surgical Castration of Dogs and Cats in the {{United States}}},
  author = {Trevejo, Rosalie and Yang, Mingyin and Lund, Elizabeth M.},
  year = {2011},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association},
  volume = {238},
  number = {7},
  pages = {898--904},
  publisher = {{American Veterinary Medical Association}},
  doi = {10.2460/javma.238.7.898},
  abstract = {Abstract Objective\textemdash To estimate the prevalence of surgical castration among dogs and cats evaluated at private US veterinary hospitals and to determine the influence of sex, age, breed, geographic location, and prepaid wellness plan enrollment on the likelihood of castration. Design\textemdash Retrospective period prevalence study. Animals\textemdash 320,172 cats and 1,339,860 dogs examined at 651 hospitals during 2007 Procedures\textemdash Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to compare prevalence among subpopulations for each species. Results\textemdash The overall prevalence of castration was 82\% in cats and 64\% in dogs. Prevalence increased significantly with age in both species. Among cats, males were slightly more likely to be castrated than females (prevalence ratio [PR] = 1.03) and mixed breeds slightly less likely than purebreds (PR = 0.99). Among dogs, males were less likely to be castrated than females (PR = 0.93) and mixed breeds more likely than purebreds (PR = 1.19). Prevalence was lowest in dogs in the Southeastern United States (61\%). Dogs and cats on a wellness plan were more likely to be castrated than those not on a plan (PR = 1.33 and 1.18, respectively). Among commonly reported dog breeds, pit bull-type dogs (27\%) and Chihuahuas (46\%) were least likely to be castrated. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance\textemdash Many young adult (1- to {$<$} 4-year-old) dogs (32\%) were uncastrated, signaling a need to promote earlier castration. Outreach efforts should be directed toward owners of pets least likely to be castrated, such as male dogs, dogs of specific breeds (ie, pit bull-type and Chihuahua), and dogs in the Southeastern United States. Additional research is needed to evaluate the potential impact of wellness programs on an owner's decision to have his or her pet castrated.},
  chapter = {Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Trevejo et al/trevejo_et_al_2011_epidemiology_of_surgical_castration_of_dogs_and_cats_in_the_united_states.pdf}
}

@article{vanHorik.etal.2018,
  title = {Do Detour Tasks Provide Accurate Assays of Inhibitory Control?},
  author = {{van Horik}, Jayden O. and Langley, Ellis J. G. and Whiteside, Mark A. and Laker, Philippa R. and Beardsworth, Christine E. and Madden, Joah R.},
  year = {2018},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences},
  volume = {285},
  number = {1875},
  pages = {20180150},
  publisher = {{Royal Society}},
  doi = {10.1098/rspb.2018.0150},
  abstract = {Transparent Cylinder and Barrier tasks are used to purportedly assess inhibitory control in a variety of animals. However, we suspect that performances on these detour tasks are influenced by non-cognitive traits, which may result in inaccurate assays of inhibitory control. We therefore reared pheasants under standardized conditions and presented each bird with two sets of similar tasks commonly used to measure inhibitory control. We recorded the number of times subjects incorrectly attempted to access a reward through transparent barriers, and their latencies to solve each task. Such measures are commonly used to infer the differential expression of inhibitory control. We found little evidence that their performances were consistent across the two different Putative Inhibitory Control Tasks (PICTs). Improvements in performance across trials showed that pheasants learned the affordances of each specific task. Critically, prior experience of transparent tasks, either Barrier or Cylinder, also improved subsequent inhibitory control performance on a novel task, suggesting that they also learned the general properties of transparent obstacles. Individual measures of persistence, assayed in a third task, were positively related to their frequency of incorrect attempts to solve the transparent inhibitory control tasks. Neophobia, Sex and Body Condition had no influence on individual performance. Contrary to previous studies of primates, pheasants with poor performance on PICTs had a wider dietary breadth assayed using a free-choice task. Our results demonstrate that in systems or taxa where prior experience and differences in development cannot be accounted for, individual differences in performance on commonly used detour-dependent PICTS may reveal more about an individual's prior experience of transparent objects, or their motivation to acquire food, than providing a reliable measure of their inhibitory control.},
  keywords = {Barrier task,cognition,Cylinder task,executive control,executive function}
}

@article{Vas.etal.2007,
  title = {Measuring Attention Deficit and Activity in Dogs: {{A}} New Application and Validation of a Human {{ADHD}} Questionnaire},
  shorttitle = {Measuring Attention Deficit and Activity in Dogs},
  author = {Vas, Judit and Top{\'a}l, J{\'o}zsef and P{\'e}ch, {\'E}va and Mikl{\'o}si, {\'A}d{\'a}m},
  year = {2007},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Applied Animal Behaviour Science},
  volume = {103},
  number = {1},
  pages = {105--117},
  issn = {0168-1591},
  doi = {10.1016/j.applanim.2006.03.017},
  abstract = {Recently more evidence has been found that the dog could serve as a viable model for studying the evolutionary emergence and regulating mechanisms of human behaviour. This approach is of especial importance when someone wants to study the underlying mechanisms of such human behaviour disorders like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Using questionnaires is a widely accepted methodology in this field of human behaviour research and recently many reported parallel observations also on dogs (e.g. questionnaire analysis of temperament traits). However, the handicap of this line of studies is, that the psychometric properties (validity) of the animal questionnaires were rarely examined, therefore, the reliability of this methodology remains uncertain. In the present paper a 13-item questionnaire assessing attention skills, impulsivity and motor activity in pet dogs was developed on the basis of a validated one used for evaluating ADHD related problems in children. The primary purpose of this study was to measure reliability and validity of the questionnaire in order to introduce a new method for studying behaviour problems related to attention skills and the levels of activity/impusivity in pet dogs. The owners of a pet dog population (N=220) of many different breeds (69) were involved in the study and the sample was balanced for the dogs' age, gender and training/qualification. Internal and external validity of the questionnaire were analysed and results supported the relevance of the two subscales predetermined from the items of the questionnaire (inattention and activity\textendash impulsivity). Comparisons of the inattention and activity\textendash impulsivity scores of the different age-, gender- and training-groups showed significant effects of age and training on the attention skills in the dogs. Findings suggest that the application of human ADHD questionnaire (dog-ADHD rating scale) is a reliable and valid method of assessing attention skills and activity in dogs.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Activity,ADHD,Dog,Questionnaire,Validity},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Vas et al/vas_et_al_2007_measuring_attention_deficit_and_activity_in_dogs.pdf}
}

@article{Wagenmakers.2007,
  title = {A Practical Solution to the Pervasive Problems of p Values},
  author = {Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan},
  year = {2007},
  journal = {Psychonomic Bulletin \& Review},
  volume = {14},
  number = {5},
  pages = {779--804},
  issn = {1531-5320},
  doi = {10.3758/BF03194105},
  abstract = {In the field of psychology, the practice ofp value null-hypothesis testing is as widespread as ever. Despite this popularity, or perhaps because of it, most psychologists are not aware of the statistical peculiarities of thep value procedure. In particular,p values are based on data that were never observed, and these hypothetical data are themselves influenced by subjective intentions. Moreover,p values do not quantify statistical evidence. This article reviews thesep value problems and illustrates each problem with concrete examples. The three problems are familiar to statisticians but may be new to psychologists. A practical solution to thesep value problems is to adopt a model selection perspective and use the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) for statistical inference (Raftery, 1995). The BIC provides an approximation to a Bayesian hypothesis test, does not require the specification of priors, and can be easily calculated from SPSS output.}
}

@article{Wagenmakers.etal.2012,
  title = {An Agenda for Purely Confirmatory Research},
  author = {Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan and Wetzels, Ruud and Borsboom, Denny and {van der Maas}, Han L. J. and Kievit, Rogier A.},
  year = {2012},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Perspectives on Psychological Science},
  volume = {7},
  number = {6},
  pages = {632--638},
  issn = {1745-6916},
  doi = {10.1177/1745691612463078},
  abstract = {The veracity of substantive research claims hinges on the way experimental data are collected and analyzed. In this article, we discuss an uncomfortable fact that threatens the core of psychology?s academic enterprise: almost without exception, psychologists do not commit themselves to a method of data analysis before they see the actual data. It then becomes tempting to fine tune the analysis to the data in order to obtain a desired result?a procedure that invalidates the interpretation of the common statistical tests. The extent of the fine tuning varies widely across experiments and experimenters but is almost impossible for reviewers and readers to gauge. To remedy the situation, we propose that researchers preregister their studies and indicate in advance the analyses they intend to conduct. Only these analyses deserve the label ?confirmatory,? and only for these analyses are the common statistical tests valid. Other analyses can be carried out but these should be labeled ?exploratory.? We illustrate our proposal with a confirmatory replication attempt of a study on extrasensory perception.}
}

@article{Wan.etal.2009,
  title = {A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Reports by {{German Shepherd}} Owners in {{Hungary}} and the {{United States}} of {{America}}},
  author = {Wan, Michele and Kubinyi, Enik{\H o} and Mikl{\'o}si, {\'A}d{\'a}m and Champagne, Frances},
  year = {2009},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Applied Animal Behaviour Science},
  volume = {121},
  number = {3},
  pages = {206--213},
  issn = {0168-1591},
  doi = {10.1016/j.applanim.2009.09.015},
  abstract = {Cross-cultural comparisons of dog behavior and dog-keeping practices are limited. The current study compared the questionnaire responses of German Shepherd owners in Hungary and the United States of America (USA). Owners provided information about their dog-keeping practices, as well as reports of their own German Shepherds' behavior and temperament. Cross-cultural differences and similarities were revealed using multivariate regression. Owners from the USA were more likely to keep their dogs indoors during the day (OR=29.6, P=0.006) and at night (OR=772, P=0.012), to report that their dogs were kept as pets (OR=2648, P=0.003), and to engage their dogs in a greater number of training varieties (e.g. conformation training, agility training) (b=1.97, P=0.001). However, country was not significantly associated with the duration of daily dog\textendash owner interaction, dog's age at acquisition, and the number of previous dogs owned. Owners from the USA rated their dogs more highly than owners from Hungary on the confidence (b=0.814, P=0.006) and aggressiveness scales (b=0.974, P=0.002) of the Budapest Canine Personality Survey. In contrast, scores on the liveliness and attachment scales of the Budapest Canine Personality Survey, as well as scores on the Dog-ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) Rating Scale, were not predicted by country. Findings for the emotional predisposition questionnaire were similarly mixed. In order to confirm such findings, future cross-cultural studies on dogs should combine the use of surveys with observational methods. Cross-cultural differences like those observed should be considered when interpreting the results of studies on dog cognition and behavior. Researchers may wish to replicate cognitive and behavioral research with dogs from a range of environments around the world before firmly concluding that the findings apply to all dogs.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Behavior,Cross-cultural,Dog,German Shepherd,Questionnaire,Temperament}
}

@article{Wan.etal.2013,
  title = {{{DRD4}} and {{TH}} Gene Polymorphisms Are Associated with Activity, Impulsivity and Inattention in {{Siberian Husky}} Dogs},
  author = {Wan, Michele and Hejjas, Krisztina and Ronai, Zsolt and Elek, Zsuzsanna and {Sasvari-Szekely}, Maria and Champagne, Frances A. and Mikl{\'o}si, {\'A}d{\'a}m and Kubinyi, Enik{\H o}},
  year = {2013},
  journal = {Animal Genetics},
  volume = {44},
  number = {6},
  pages = {717--727},
  issn = {1365-2052},
  doi = {10.1111/age.12058},
  abstract = {Both dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) exon 3 and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) intron 4 repeat polymorphisms have been linked to activity and impulsivity in German Shepherd dogs (GSDs). However, the results in GSDs may not be generalisable to other breeds, as allelic frequencies vary markedly among breeds. We selected the Siberian Husky for further study, because it is highly divergent from most dog breeds, including the GSD. The study sample consisted of 145 racing Siberian Huskies from Europe and North America. We found that this breed possesses seven DRD4 length variants, two to five more variants than found in other breeds. Among them was the longest known allele, previously described only in wolves. Short alleles of the DRD4 and TH repeat polymorphisms were associated with higher levels of activity, impulsivity and inattention. Siberian Huskies possessing at least one short allele of the DRD4 polymorphism displayed greater activity in a behavioural test battery than did those with two long alleles. However, the behavioural test was brief and may not have registered variation in behaviour across time and situations. Owners also completed the Dog-Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Rating Scale (Dog-ADHD RS), a more general measure of activity and attention. Siberian Huskies from Europe with two short alleles of the TH polymorphism received higher ratings of inattention on the Dog-ADHD RS than did those with the long allele. Investigation of the joint effect of DRD4 and TH showed that dogs possessing long alleles at both sites were scored as less active\textendash impulsive than were others. Our results are aligned with previous studies showing that DRD4 and TH polymorphisms are associated with activity\textendash impulsivity related traits in dogs. However, the prevalence of variants of these genes differs across breeds, and the functional role of specific variants is unclear.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {behaviour,canine,dopamine receptor D4,genetic association,sled dogs,tyrosine hydroxylase,VNTR polymorphism},
  annotation = {\_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/age.12058},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Wan et al/wan_et_al_2013_drd4_and_th_gene_polymorphisms_are_associated_with_activity,_impulsivity_and.pdf}
}

@article{Weber.etal.2002,
  title = {A Domain-Specific Risk-Attitude Scale: Measuring Risk Perceptions and Risk Behaviors},
  shorttitle = {A Domain-Specific Risk-Attitude Scale},
  author = {Weber, Elke U. and Blais, Ann-Ren{\'e}e and Betz, Nancy E.},
  year = {2002},
  journal = {Journal of Behavioral Decision Making},
  volume = {15},
  number = {4},
  pages = {263--290},
  doi = {10.1002/bdm.414},
  abstract = {We present a psychometric scale that assesses risk taking in five content domains: financial decisions (separately for investing versus gambling), health/safety, recreational, ethical, and social decisions. Respondents rate the likelihood that they would engage in domain-specific risky activities (Part I). An optional Part II assesses respondents' perceptions of the magnitude of the risks and expected benefits of the activities judged in Part I. The scale's construct validity and consistency is evaluated for a sample of American undergraduate students. As expected, respondents' degree of risk taking was highly domain-specific, i.e. not consistently risk-averse or consistently risk-seeking across all content domains. Women appeared to be more risk-averse in all domains except social risk. A regression of risk taking (likelihood of engaging in the risky activity) on expected benefits and perceived risks suggests that gender and content domain differences in apparent risk taking are associated with differences in the perception of the activities' benefits and risk, rather than with differences in attitude towards perceived risk. Copyright \textcopyright{} 2002 John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.}
}

@article{Whiteside.etal.2005,
  title = {Validation of the {{UPPS}} Impulsive Behaviour Scale: A Four-factor Model of Impulsivity},
  shorttitle = {Validation of the {{UPPS}} Impulsive Behaviour Scale},
  author = {Whiteside, Stephen P. and Lynam, Donald R. and Miller, Joshua D. and Reynolds, Sarah K.},
  year = {2005},
  month = dec,
  journal = {European Journal of Personality},
  volume = {19},
  number = {7},
  pages = {559--574},
  publisher = {{SAGE Publications Ltd}},
  issn = {0890-2070},
  doi = {10.1002/per.556},
  abstract = {The current study attempts to clarify the multi-faceted nature of impulsivity through the use of the four-factor UPPS Impulsive Behaviour scale. In order to build the nomological network surrounding this scale, the UPPS was administered to individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD), pathological gamblers (PG), alcohol abusers (divided into two groups based on the presence of antisocial features), and a control group. Several of the UPPS scales (e.g. Urgency, lack of Premeditation, and Sensation Seeking) differentiated the BPD, PG, and alcohol abusers with antisocial features from a group of non-antisocial alcohol abusers and a control group. Overall, the UPPS scales accounted for between 7\% (pathological gambling) and 64\% (borderline personality disorder features) of the overall variance in the psychopathology measures. Individual UPPS scales also made unique contributions to several of these disorders, which may provide insight into which of these personality traits may predispose individuals to behave in maladaptive or problematic ways. The results provide support for the differentiation of impulsivity-related constructs into the current four-factor model. Copyright \textcopyright{} 2005 John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Whiteside.Lynam.2001,
  title = {The {{Five Factor Model}} and Impulsivity: Using a Structural Model of Personality to Understand Impulsivity},
  shorttitle = {The {{Five Factor Model}} and Impulsivity},
  author = {Whiteside, Stephen P. and Lynam, Donald R.},
  year = {2001},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Personality and Individual Differences},
  volume = {30},
  number = {4},
  pages = {669--689},
  issn = {0191-8869},
  doi = {10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00064-7},
  abstract = {The present project utilized the Five Factor Model of personality (FFM; McCrae \& Costa, 1990) to clarify the multi-faceted nature of impulsivity. The NEO-PI-R and a number of commonly used impulsivity measures were administered to over 400 young adults. Exploratory factor analyses identified four distinct personality facets associated with impulsive-like behavior which were labeled urgency, (lack of) premeditation, (lack of) perseverance, and sensation seeking. Each of these traits was marked by a different facet of the FFM. Following the initial factor identification, scales to measure each of the personality facets were created and combined to form the UPPS Impulsive Behavior scale. Implications for the understanding of impulsive behavior and the FFM are discussed, as are future applications of the UPPS impulsive behavior scale.},
  langid = {english},
  keywords = {Deliberation,Five Factor Model,Impulsivity,Personality,Sensation seeking,Urgency}
}

@article{Wilcox.2004,
  title = {Inferences Based on a Skipped Correlation Coefficient},
  author = {Wilcox, Rand},
  year = {2004},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Journal of Applied Statistics},
  volume = {31},
  number = {2},
  pages = {131--143},
  publisher = {{Taylor \& Francis}},
  issn = {0266-4763},
  doi = {10.1080/0266476032000148821},
  abstract = {The most popular method for trying to detect an association between two random variables is to test H 0 : {$\rho$}=0, the hypothesis that Pearson's correlation is equal to zero. It is well known, however, that Pearson's correlation is not robust, roughly meaning that small changes in any distribution, including any bivariate normal distribution as a special case, can alter its value. Moreover, the usual estimate of {$\rho$}, r, is sensitive to only a few outliers which can mask a true association. A simple alternative to testing H 0 : {$\rho$} =0 is to switch to a measure of association that guards against outliers among the marginal distributions such as Kendall's tau, Spearman's rho, a Winsorized correlation, or a so-called percentage bend correlation. But it is known that these methods fail to take into account the overall structure of the data. Many measures of association that do take into account the overall structure of the data have been proposed, but it seems that nothing is known about how they might be used to detect dependence. One such measure of association is selected, which is designed so that under bivariate normality, its estimator gives a reasonably accurate estimate of {$\rho$}. Then methods for testing the hypothesis of a zero correlation are studied.},
  keywords = {inferences,Pearson's correlation,random variables,Skipped correlation coefficient},
  annotation = {\_eprint: https://doi.org/10.1080/0266476032000148821}
}

@article{Wright.etal.2011,
  title = {Development and Validation of a Psychometric Tool for Assessing Impulsivity in the Domestic Dog ({{Canis}} Familiaris)},
  author = {Wright, H F and Mills, D S and Pollux, P M J},
  year = {2011},
  journal = {International Journal of Comparative Psychology},
  volume = {24},
  number = {2},
  pages = {210--225},
  abstract = {Impulsivity is a trait that has received much attention in humans, but in dogs impulsivity is ill- defined, and previous studies have tended to focus on aggression, rather than its more pervasive effect on behavior. The objective of this study was to develop a valid psychometric assessment tool of impulsivity in dogs. An owner report questionnaire was constructed using items generated by a survey of experts. Five hundred and seventy one dog owners returned the questionnaire and data were subjected to principal components analysis, revealing a three-factor structure: Factor 1: Behavioral Regulation, Factor 2: Aggression \& Response to Novelty, and Factor 3: Responsiveness. The resulting Dog Impulsivity Assessment Scale comprised of 18 items demonstrated evidence of reliability and validity.},
  keywords = {intertemporal choice,patience},
  file = {/home/jstevens/zotero-library/Wright et al/wright_et_al_2011_development_and_validation_of_a_psychometric_tool_for_assessing_impulsivity_in2.pdf}
}

@article{Wright.etal.2012a,
  title = {Behavioural and Physiological Correlates of Impulsivity in the Domestic Dog ({{Canis}} Familiaris)},
  author = {Wright, H F and Mills, Daniel S. and Pollux, Petra M.J.},
  year = {2012},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Physiology \& Behavior},
  volume = {105},
  number = {3},
  pages = {676--682},
  issn = {0031-9384},
  doi = {10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.09.019},
  abstract = {Impulsivity is a trait related to inhibitory control which is expressed in a range of behaviours. Impulsive individuals show a decreased ability to tolerate delay of reinforcement, and more impulsive behaviour has been linked to decreased levels of serotonin and dopamine in a number of species. In domestic dogs, impulsivity is implicated in problem behaviours that result from a lack of self control, but currently there are no published studies that assess behavioural and physiological measures of impulsivity in relation to this trait. Impulsivity scores were calculated for 41 dogs using an owner-report assessment, the Dog Impulsivity Assessment Scale (DIAS). Twenty-three of these subjects completed an operant choice task based on a delayed reward paradigm, to assess their tolerance to delay of reinforcement. High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with Fluorometric Detection was used to detect levels of the metabolites of serotonin (5-HIAA) and dopamine (HVA) in the urine of 17 of the subjects. Higher impulsivity scores were found to be significantly correlated with more impulsive behaviour (reduced tolerance to delay of reinforcement) in the behaviour tests and lower levels of urinary 5-HIAA and 5-HIAA/HVA ratio. The results demonstrate convergent validity between impulsivity (as assessed by the DIAS) and behavioural and physiological parameters.},
  keywords = {Dog,Dopamine,impulsivity,Personality,Serotonin,Temperament},
  file = {/home/jstevens/Zotero/storage/THRPPKPQ/wright_et_al_2012_behavioural_and_physiological_correlates_of_impulsivity_in_the_domestic_dog.pdf}
}


